Project Review Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Project Review Report - Essay Example This is what happened during the merger of Compaq and Hewlett Packard, which is part of the study. Both Compaq and HP are long time rivals in the field of computer hardware and components. However, looking at the benefits of their merger, both the companies as part of each others’ strategic management initiated the merger drive. So, in the initial phases, a lot of issues regarding the merger was analysed in an overview kind of manner. That is, in the initial phases, key strategic management issues that preceded the merger on both sides were first focused and discussed. Then as a continuation of that discussion, the key management changes that took place as well as that were initiated by both the companies in the post-merger period were discussed. From the research that was done about both the companies in the pre-merger period it is clear that it was not smooth sailing because descendants of HP and Compaq founders opposed the merger. Although key stakeholders in HP particularly the scions of the founders opposed the merger deal, the merger was actualized by the narrowest of margins. The merger was expected to yield savings projected to reach $2.5 billion annually by 2004. (Hoopes 2004). The next important issue that was focused in the initial phase is how both the companies became ‘congruent’ on certain issues. That is, instead of creating a challenge and competition between the two major but different corporations, the HP-Compaq merger suggested that the cooperation will give much better results for the both of two corporations. By sharing experiences and Trade Marks, the merger (but of course based on the long term results) was expected to aid both the companies or the combined entity to reach the required tar gets In the initial phase, as part of the designs and synthesis of ideas, research and analysis was done on both the companies including

Moroccan Islamic Combatant group Profile Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Moroccan Islamic Combatant group Profile - Essay Example Aligning itself with al-Qaeda in the aftermath of the attacks of September 11th in the United States of America, the GICM is a Sunni Islamist jihadist organization which seeks the overthrow of the reining institutions of the Moroccan state and the imposition of dogmatic Islamic rule in the country. Seeking to explore the Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group, this essay will define the term terrorist and explore the ideology behind this militant organization. An analysis of its targets, tactics and capabilities will conclude with a summary of its overall goals. Finally, we will conclude with a precise overview of this organization and its links to the global terror phenomenon. What is a terrorist and how does one define terrorism? The age old adage that â€Å"one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter† (Bergesen & Lizardo 39) remains true and the term terrorist has been notoriously difficult to define. Despite the definitional challenges surrounding the terrorist phenomenon, a definition of â€Å"terrorism† is integral to this essay and this term must be defined so as to provide a theoretical basis to this analysis of the GICM. Bruce Hoffman, world renowned terror scholar and expert of the use of terror as a political tool, understands the slippery nature of defining the term and argues that first and foremost, terrorism is a political concept. Secondly, terror is about power and the use of this power to enact political change (Hoffman 14-15). Another prominent international terror theorist, Gà ©rard Chaliand, terror is a tool which targets the mind. From this perspective, terror is â€Å"the most violent form of ps ychological warfare† (Chaliand et al. 2007) and terrorism is a means to power and control through violent means. While both of these definitions shed insight into the terrorist phenomenon, Dr. Mia Bloom, the world’s foremost expert on

Media And Growth Of Bacteria

Media And Growth Of Bacteria To grow and reproduce, microorganisms require nutrients as their source of energy and certain environmental conditions. Adaptation to different habitats has been acquired by microbes living in the exposed environment. In the laboratory, however, these requirements are to be met by a culture medium. Therefore, media preparation is an essential aspect in microbial growth. There is a wide variety of media which can be used for laboratory purposes. Generally, similar procedures can be used in the preparation of media. In this practical, YT broth is prepared from yeast extract, trypton, NaCl and agar. YT broth is a commonly used bacterial Esherichia coli culture media in molecular biology. Usually, YT medium is applicable for phage DNA production. Compared to LB broth, YT is a richer medium in which it supports higher cell density and a longer growth period for E. coli. Bacteria are the most abundant and most important biological component as they involve in the transformation and mineralization of organic matter in the biosphere (Cho Adam, 1988; Pomeroy Wiebe, 2001). Generally, growth is defined as an increase in number of cells. Bacterial cell growth depends upon a large number of cellular reactions such as transforming energy. Syntheses of small molecules are performed to build macromolecules and to provide various cofactors and coenzymes for biochemical reactions. Polymerization of monomers builds the macromolecules in the bacterial cell. As the macromolecules accumulate in the cell, they are assembled into new structures with specific functions such as the cell wall, cytoplasmic membranes, ribosomes and flagella, if to name a few, and eventually lead to cell division. E. coli is used as a test organism in this practical for investigating the bacterial growth. Such a growing rod shaped cell bacterium elongates to approximately twice their original length and then forms a partition that constricts the cell into two daughter cells. This process is known as binary fission. A partition called the septum is formed by the inward growth of the cytoplasmic membrane and the cell wall from opposite directions. The septum continues to grow inwards until the two daughter cells are pinched off. When one cell separates from to form two daughter cells, one generation has occurred and the time required for binary fission is known as the generation time. Under the best nutritional conditions, the generation time of a laboratory E. coli culture is approximately 20 minutes (Buettner et al., 1973). The growth stages of bacterial cells are described in a growth curve consisting of the lag phase, exponential phase, stationary phase and death phase (Zwietering et al., 1990). In the lag phase, the bacterial cell begins to grow only after a period of time due to new environment being inoculated. The time interval of lag phase depends on the growth conditions and the history of the inoculum. If the growing culture is transferred into the same medium under the same conditions, there is no lag phase and exponential phase starts immediately. However, if the inoculum transferred is taken from the stationary phase in an old culture, lag phase is observed. This is because certain essentials of the cell have depleted and time is required for biosynthesis of new constituents. The lag phase is also observed when the cells are transferred from a rich culture medium to a poorer culture medium. In the poorer condition, the cells need to synthesize the essential metabolites that are not present i n the previous medium. Thus, time is needed by the cells to produce new enzymes. In the exponential phase, the cell divides to form two cells, both the total cell number and mass double but there is no change in the average cell mass. The cells are said to be in their healthiest state. The rate of exponential growth varies widely among microorganisms. The rate is influenced by environmental conditions and the genetic characteristics of the organism itself. In the stationary phase, the essential nutrients of the culture medium are used up and at the same time, the wastes produced by the bacterial cells accumulate in the culture medium. Thus, growth is inhibited. The exponential growth is ceased and the cells reach the stationary phase. There is no net increase or decrease in the cell number and hence the growth rate of the cells is zero. The cells enter the death phase of the growth cycle after reaching the stationary phase whereby cell lysis occurs. Figure 1: Typical growth curve of a bacterial population. The growth of E.coli is investigated under various cultural conditions, including effect of pH, temperature and aeration). Effect of pH is ascertained by preparing media of different pH values. Temperature is always a potentially limiting factor by affecting all chemical and biochemical processes and thus is viewed as an interactive factor (Pomeroy Wiebe, 2001). Aeration is done by shaking so that air space volume can be increased. As such, good and excellent aeration is stimulated. MATERIALS Media components (yeast extract, trypton, NaCl and agar), E. coli culture, 20x petri dish, 5250 ml conical flask and 1100 ml conical flask, plus cotton wool plugs in aluminium foil, Whatman paper METHOD Media Preparation The five 250 ml conical flasks and one 100 ml conical flasks were prepared and labelled as M1-M10 on the first day of practical. 100 ml of YT broth was prepared in 250 ml flasks, with the composition as trypton 1.6%(w:v), yeast extract 1%(w:v), and NaCl 0.5%(w:v). The pH was adjusted to those shown in table 2.1, followed by autoclaving. 500 ml agar was prepared in 1L flask, in which composed of YT broth and agar (13.5 g/L). The prepared medium was autoclaved. The agar was poured on 20 petri dishes. Inoculation Day 2 was begun with inoculating M1 to M8 with 1.0ml E. coli, while M9 and M10 as control set. Incubation was performed at 37Â °C for 24 hours. Whatman paper was dried overnight. Analysis Prior to an analysis, the culture was well shaken and the sampling was done under aseptic condition. Measurement of cell density and variable cell (as colony forming units, cfu) After the overnight incubation, a 3.0ml aliquot of each culture was taken and the absorbance was measured at 660nm. M9 and M10 was used as the blank. Data obtained was tabulated. Measurement of final pH of broth The final pH of the cell culture was measured. The results were also recorded in table 2.1. Measurement of CFU At day 3, a serial dilution was done from 10-2, 10-4, 10-6, 10-8 to 10-10. Hockey stick spreading technique was performed to plate out the sample. Two replicates were done for each plate, labelled a and b respectively. The culture was incubated at 37Â °C for 24 hours. The changes were observed and recorded on the next day, and thereby determining the CFU, as what recorded in table 2.2(a) and 2.2(b). Measurement of biomass The Whatman paper dried was weighed and the initial weight was recorded. A 10ml aliquot of the content of the flasks was filtered using the Whatman paper by washing with distilled water. The paper together with the content was dried in oven at 70Â °C overnight. On the next day, the final weight was measured and thereby obtaining the net weight gain of the filter paper. The result was recorded in table 2.3. RESULTS The pH change and the absorbance values measured were recorded in table 2.1. Flask M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 Pre-incubation pH 4.0 7.0 10.0 7.0 4.0 7.0 10.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 Post-incubation pH 3.96 7.08 10.16 7.16 4.13 7.21 9.93 7.73 7.12 7.14 OD660nm 0.108 1.267 0.01 0.916 0.191 1.906 0.056 1.812 0.0 0.0 Growth condition No shaking (with air space) No shaking (without air space) Shaking at 200 rpm (with air space) Shaking at 200 rpm (without air space) Table 2.1: pH change and absorbance measured for M1 to M10 CFU for plate labelled a and for plate b was calculated using the formula below, which was then recorded in table 2.2(a) and 2.2(b) respectively. CFU = colony number x dilution factor = x cfu/0.1ml = ? cfu/ml Table 2.2(a): CFU for plate labelled a Flask M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 Dilution (10-4) 55 22 0 >300 1 161 0 >300 0 0 CFU/ml 5500000 2200000 0 TMTC 100000 16100000 0 TMTC 0 0 Dilution (10-6) 0 13 0 185 0 24 0 3 0 0 CFU/ml 0 130000000 0 1850000000 0 240000000 0 30000000 0 0 Flask M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 Dilution (10-4) 13 >300 0 >300 0 >300 0 >300 0 0 CFU/ml 1300000 TMTC 0 TMTC 0 TMTC 0 TMTC 0 0 Dilution (10-6) 0 3 0 89 0 32 0 4 0 0 CFU/ml 0 30000000 0 890000000 0 320000000 0 40000000 0 0 Table 2.2(b): CFU for plate labelled b The biomass was calculated using the formula below and was recorded in table 2.3. Biomass (g/ml) = Flask M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 Initial weight of filter paper 1.14 1.16 1.14 1.17 1.19 1.15 1.16 1.19 1.16 1.17 Dried weight of filter paper 1.15 1.17 1.14 1.17 1.20 1.17 1.16 1.19 1.16 1.17 Mass Difference 0.01 0.01 0.0 0.0 0.01 0.02 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Biomass (mg /ml) 0.001 0.001 0.0 0.0 0.001 0.002 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Table 2.3: Biomass DISCUSSION From the tables in the result section and observation, we analyze the growth of E. coli under various pH and aeration condition. Measuring OD and calculating CFU give relevant and supportive information to our experiment. However, the biomass calculated is not applicable to accurately ascertain the factors affecting the growth as some errors occurred during the measurement of biomass, probably. Cell density and variable cell OD stands for optical density which indicates the wavelength of light. In this practical, OD660 measures the light absorbance by E. coli cultures, which correspond to the E. coli cell density in a given volume. OD660 determines whether the cells are ready for making cell stocks or as a competent cell. In other words, it can be said that in this part, OD660 was used to ascertain the quantity of E. coli grown in the YT broth after incubating overnight at 37Â °C. Flasks M1 to M8 were inoculated with 1.0 ml of E. coli culture. The result showed that growth had occurred. On the other hand, M9 and M10 served as the control set in which inoculation of bacteria was not applied, in addition to acting as blank during analysis with spectrophotometer. From table 2.1, it was shown that the OD of both M9 and M10 appeared to be zero. This shows that there was no sign of growth of E. coli in the two flasks. Spreading of plates was done in class II laminar flow cabinet. Sterile operation in cell culture is vital where it can affect the CFU of E. coli. This minimizes the chance of culture contamination. On top of that, the safety of the operator is ensured (Betler, 2004). From the aspect of CFU, as what shown in table 2.2(a) and 2.2(b), there was abundant of cells in M2, M4, M6 and M8. The cell density was still high even with the dilution of 10-6. Therefore, it was determined that E. coli has the optimum growth pH at 7.0. Effect of broths pH on growth Different growth condition gives different OD values. Optimum pH of E.coli growing in a culture at 37oC is around 7.0. E.coli is not able to tolerate under extremely alkaline and acidic environments because most of the enzymes found in the bacterium are very pH-sensitive. These enzymes carry out the important processes in E.coli. When there is extreme change in pH, enzymes in E.coli become denatured. Denature of enzymes in E.coli can lead to all sorts of interruptions to biochemical processes or even causes death of the E.coli. From table 2.1, it was found that there was no growth of E.coli in both flask M3 and M7 with pH 10.0; as the absorbance measured were 0.01 and 0.056 respectively. Whereas, there were some E.coli grow in flask M1 and M5 with pH 4.0, which have OD recorded 0.108 and 0.191 respectively. Thus, it can be concluded that E.coli seems to be more tolerate to lower pH (acidic condition) than higher pH (alkaline condition). Since pH 7.0 is the optimum pH for the growth of E.coli at 37oC, there were many colony of E.coli growing on the agar plates which spread with the sample from flask M2, M4, M6 and M8. There are some changes in the pH before and after the incubation. This is because there is formation of inhibitory products such as organic acids during the growth of E.coli in the YT nutrient broth. Effect of aeration on growth pH of medium is determined by medium composition, buffers, cellular metabolism and aeration. NaCl is used as buffer, where the depletion of this organic buffer will cause an E. coli reaches its maximum pH limit. Hence, care has to be taken to balance the organic buffer, sugar content and aeration medium because low aeration leads to production of acids; High aeration causes cells to use organic acids as carbon source, and thus increases the pH of medium. In brief, selected aeration also helps in maintaining cells pH. Theoretically, shake flask incubator reduces the solid and liquid inter-phase, thus minimizing the mass transfer. Increased speed and momentum cause cells to lyse among themselves. Increased speed also increases the formation of foam, thus trapping gas and resulting less gas in the liquid. Since cells require nutrients for survival, absence of gas as nutrient source will cause cells to die. Hence, shaking flask actually plays an important role in bringing an improvement to mass transfer between the gas phase outside the shake flask and the liquid phase inside the shake flask. Shake flask incubator can provide a suitable environment by ensuring sufficient transfer of oxygen gas to the cell culture by appropriate mixing. Agitation will increase the aeration of the bacterial growth of E.coli. This is because oxygen is important for high density growth of E.coli cells. Agitation is controlled by the shaking speed of a shaker incubator. Thus, from the observation, Whatman paper with content from M6 has bigger biomass than others. The biomass of M6 is 1.0 mg/ml. This is because flask M6 has been shaken at 200rpm and the flask contains air space which helps in the growth of E.coli cells. Therefore, the media without shaking or without air space or without both of these growth conditions has less growth of E.coli. Thus, M6 has the best growth condition for E.coli if compared with other media. However, from the observation in this experiment, there is more E.coli colony grows in M8 (growth condition with shaking at 200rpm but without air space) than M6 (growth condition with both shaking at 200rpm and with air space) in the culture with serial dilution 10-4. Theoretically, there should be less E.coli colony grows on the plate which spread with the culture from M8 since flask M8 has less flavour growth condition for the growth of E.coli. This unexpected observation may be because the sample with serial dilution 10-4 is not well shaken before take 1.0ml of aliquot to spread on the plate. From our result, it was again determined that the growth rate of E. coli is not affected by shaking. This is proven through our experiment where there was no significant difference in yields with or without shaking cultures. When air is supplied, however, shaking cultures shows a higher yield than static cultures. The main purpose of shaking cultures at 20 rpm is to mix thoroughly the nutrient concentration in broth, with constant temperature, 37Â °C. 37Â °C is the optimum growth temperature for E.coli. Shaking prevents cells localizing at the bottom of the broth which causes a faster depletion of nutrient as time passes. Nutrients still present in the broth but cells may not accessible to them. Hence, shaking minimizes areas of high and low nutrient concentration. The amplitude of the vibration controls the intensity of fluid mixing. Shaking broth brings advantage to non-motile cells because it enables the metabolism rate to continue, in addition to benefiting mobile cells by redu cing energy on mobility. Besides, shaking increases the aeration of broth which leads to a higher yield of E. coli. From the OD values, OD at pH 7 shows the highest value for both shaking and non-shaking media because pH 7 is the most suitable medium for growth of E.coli. However, pH 7 from shaking broth has a comparatively higher OD reading compare to non-shaking broth due to shaking enhances the growth of E.coli. However, OD of pH 4 is far higher than OD of pH 10 because E.coli can still grow on pH 4, but pH 10 does not really support growth of E.coli. As for M9 and M10, both broths do not show any OD reading value because no E.coli culture is added into both broths. When pH and vibration are held constant (i.e. pH 7 with shaking), broth with aeration shows a higher OD value compare to non-aeration. This means that a higher E.coli cell density in aerated broth compare to non-aerated broth. When other factors are held constant, air space does not significantly affect E.coli yields, because E.coli is a facultative anaerobe, which means E.coli is able to produce energy during aerobic respiration and switch to anaerobic respiration when oxygen is depleting in the environment. Thus, E.coli grows in both with or without air space broth. Supposedly, colony forming unit (CFU) in plates from medium with air space has a higher growth amount compare to medium with no air-space. This is because E.coli cells produce a large quantity of acetic acid with no air-space, and thus reducing the pH of broth and does not favour the growth of E.coli. Acetic acid inhibits growth condition under anaerobic growth condition. However, according to our result, when the pH and vibration are held constant (both of pH 7 and with no shaking), CFU is greater in non air space compare to with air space. This may be due to errors occur where the mouth of broth is not tightly covered which leads to entranc e of oxygen molecules into the broth. CONCLUSION Sterile medium such as sterile YT broth is essential for bacteria growth. The optimum pH for the growth of E. coli is 7.0. Excellent aeration promotes growth of bacteria to a further extent than what good aeration does. QUESTIONS Write a flow chart for the above protocol before you start work. Label all the conical flasks from M1 to M10 Add 100ml YT broth to flasks M1 to M3 and M5 to M7 Adjust the pH of the media to 4.0,7.0 and 10.0 using either HCL or NaOH Autoclave and allow to cool to room temperature For flask M4 to M8, autoclave 200ml of the medium in a bigger container and then pour the cooled medium into the sterile 100ml conical flask Inoculate flasks M1 to M8 with 1.0ml of E.coli culture under aseptic conditions Incubate with or without shaking as indicated from the table Prepare M9 and M10 under the same conditions as for flask M2 and M6, but do not add any inoculum Prepare and autoclave the agar After an overnight incubation,take 3.0ml aliquot of each culture and measure the absorbance at 660nm Do a serial dilution from 10-1 to 10-5 in a sterile microfuge tube and plate out 0.1ml of the sample at 10-4 to 10-5 in YT agar media Incubate at 370C overnight Determine the cfu/ml of the original culture and tabulate data Measure the final pH of the cell culture and tabulate results Filter 10ml aliquot of the content of the flasks using pre-weighted Whatman paper dried in an oven at 800C overnight Measure the net weight gain of the filter paper as an indication of biomass Tabulate results Discuss your results with respect to the effect of pH of the media and aeration on bacterial growth and reasons for your observations. In addition to nutrients, the pH of the growth medium is also important for E.coli growth rate and cell density. The optimal growth pH for E.coli is near neutral. E.coli cells can grow reasonably well over a range of three pH units (from pH 5.5 to 8.5). Extreme pH beyond this range will significantly decrease the cell growth rate and may sometimes even cause cell death. The minimum and maximum growth pHs for E.coli are pH 4.4 and 9.0 respectively. E.coli cells appear to tolerate a more neutral pH better than a high pH. This is clearly shown as E.coli grows well at pH 7 as shown on plate M2, M4,M6, and M8.In fact, extended exposure of E.coli cells to a high pH causes cell lysis. This is the reason why no colonies were found on plate M3 and M7. At the saturation or stationary phase, the pH of the E.coli culture in commonly used media is near its pH limits. pH is another limiting factor for cell growth in addition to nutrition exhaustion and accumulation of toxic metabolites. E.coli cel ls can also use sugars such as glycerol and glucose as carbon or energy sources. When the E.coli cells use these sugars as carbon sources, they will produce acetic acid and therefore lower the medium pH. Carefully balancing the sugar contents, and aeration conditions can maintain the culture medium pH near E.coli optimum growth pH or within the range of the three pH units. Low aeration conditions lead the cells to produce acids. High aeration conditions allow the cells to use organic acids as carbon source and increase medium pH. Selected aeration conditions can also help cells maintain its medium pH. Do your data on absorbance at 660nm correlate with the cfu/ml and biomass data? Explain. The data on the absorbance at 660nm correlates with cfu/ml as a lower OD660nm gives a high cfu/ml and vice versa. But the data of absorbance does not correlate with the biomass. Despite the inherent inaccuracy of the method, if the procedure is adequately controlled and calibrated the estimation of microbial numbers by optical density should be sufficiently accurate for use in preparing inoculum for cfu/ml testing. Would you expect to obtain the same data if you were to scale up the experiment using a 1000L fermenter? Explain your answer. No, as the size and volume of the fermentor increases, the volume and density of the E.coli culture will increase too so the CFU/ml will also increase.

Viet Nam Essay -- essays research papers

Tactics in Vietnam were an important factor in the victory of the Vietcong over the U.S. There were fundamental differences in their fighting methods, which the Vietcong were able to take full advantage of. The Vietcong used Guerrilla warfare, this meant that they used their knowledge of the area they were fighting in to hinder the U.S. The U.S army had been used to conventional warfare, in the form of bouts of fighting. Guerrilla warfare meant that they had to be constantly alert and Booby traps meant that many soldiers died and witnessed horrific deaths. This was naturally unnerving for the soldiers concerned, particularly so because many of the soldiers were young and inexperienced. The technology of the U.S was far superior to that of the Vietcong and yet it was ultimately ineffectual. One weapon, which the U.S thought would be important, was Bombs. At first the U.S bombed specific targets. When they realized that had little effect, they began blanket bombing, this was known as ‘Operation Rolling Thunder’. Massive amounts of explosives were dropped on Vietnam, three times as much explosives was dropped than on Germany and Japan put together during World War 2. However, the Vietcong countered this with anti-aircraft guns, surface to air missiles, aid from soviet planes, and a network of tunnels. The U.S believed these to be simply to take cover from the bombing, in-fact they were also effectively used to ambush the U.S. Bombing had very little effect on the Vietcong ...

1973 War Powers Act Essay

1. If no judicial court of authority, namely the United States Supreme Court, has stricken the 1973 War Powers Act and declared it null and void constitutionally, how is it that the authors of the text book are able to conclude Congress has few, if any, war powers remaining? How can this be? The law is the law, is it not? (Specifically, explain the political phenomenon that has occurred here and has similarly occurred in other legal and constitutional matters allowing the law to be ignored.) The authors of this text book are able to conclude that Congress has few, if any, war powers remaining because of historical actions. For instance, Congress has not declared war since December 1941, yet the US has been involved and engaged in many Military Campaigns since 1941 under the orders of the president. This situation seems to have come about via many different reasons. One of the reasons that this has happened according to our book was that presidents have claimed that they have inherent executive power to defend the nation. A second reason was that when Truman dispatched American forces to Korea without a congressional declaration, and in the face of the emergency, Congress felt it had to acquiesce, and so passed a resoloution approving the presidents actions. This became the pattern for future congressional-executive relations in the militay realm. 2. Attempting to think as objectively as possible and placing your political partisan beliefs aside (looking at presidents as just that, presidents, as opposed to Democratic or Republican presidents) what does the increase in presidential unilateral military power do to the United States as a nation, for better or worse? (There is no correct answer, yet think through the checks and balances consequences.) As the sign on President Truman’s desk, â€Å"The Buck Stops Here,† presidents throughout the years have adhered to their power as chief executive officer with leagal and constitutional responsiility to ensure that the articles of the Constitution are faithfully executed, along with the power to appoint, remove and supervise all executive officers etc, the president truly is the true CEO of the US. It seems that this power has been taken literally by the presidents dating all the way back to George Washington. The good in this happening is that one chief has say in wha t happens.

Bilingual Education Essay

The presence of bilingual students in U. S. schools is significant and the result of internal and external historical factors. Educators and policymakers must consider their needs and potential contribution to our education system. The multiplicity of languages and the complex nature of bilinguals renders a complicated but exciting educational field for research, practice, and educational innovation. Unfortunately, languages become entangled in political battles, dragging the education and the future of innocent children into such conflicts. Indigenous inhabitants, colonizers, and immigrants to the United States have and continue to represent a variety of language backgrounds. Like it or not, the United States is highly multilingual. Fashions in using language in education and attitudes toward bilingualism have undergone many changes since the United States became independent. During the initial colonization of the United States, European settlers used the languages of their countries of origin. The Continental Congress considered French and German important for political purposes. It recognized the need to disseminate information among disparate populations to broaden the cause of independence (Heath, 1976). The settlers established schools that educated their children in their own languages, especially French, German, Spanish, and Swedish, while teaching English as a second language. Schools that used English as the medium of instruction taught one of the other European languages as a second language ( Keller & Van Hooft, 1982). The presence of many languages in U. S. schools was an accepted reality until the 1870s. â€Å"Newspapers, schools, and societies provided instructional support for diverse languages† (Heath, 1981, p. 7). There was, however, concern for seeking a common language, especially to conduct government affairs (Heath, 1981). The original colonies and territories incorporated later into the Union comprised local governments that used different languages, such as German in Pennsylvania, French in Louisiana, and Spanish in New Mexico and California. English, nevertheless, always played an important role in the public life of the colonies because from the beginning England colonized the United States. The form of government embraced after the American Revolution reflected English values (Conklin & Lourie, 1983). Economic and historic factors helped solidify the position of English as the language of government. During the first half of the 20th century, English was imposed as the language of instruction in most states. As many as 34 states enacted laws mandating English as the language of instruction. Other languages were forbidden and teachers could be fined or jailed if found using them: â€Å"No polyglot empire of the old world has dared be as ruthless in imposing a single language upon its whole population as was the liberal republic ‘dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal'† ( Johnson, 1949, pp. 118-119). Political, social, and economic rationales for denigrating all languages other than English advanced linguistic and cognitive theories that attacked bilingualism. Public schools quickly adopted a â€Å"sink or swim† attitude during the first half of the 20th century. Special programs such as English as a Second Language (ESL) served only adults. The assumption was that children learn languages easily and nothing special needed to be done. Nevertheless, despite the lack of public support for bilingual education, there were bilingual programs–mostly dual language programs–in private and parochial schools. These schools extended the required curriculum to include instruction in the cultural, linguistic, and religious heritages of the particular ethnic group. A great number of them were bilingual (Fishman & Markman, 1979). National interest in bilingual education spread when Title VII, the Bilingual Education Act (an amendment to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act) was enacted in 1968. This federal legislation provided funds to create bilingual programs in poor school districts (Lyons, 1990). The impact of the federal law, both good and bad, was widely felt. A number of states reversed the laws that permitted English as the only language of instruction by passing bilingual education legislation. Massachusetts was the first state to enact such a law with its Transitional Bilingual Education Act (1971). More than 20 other states followed Massachusetts’ example by creating transitional bilingual education programs (August & Garcia, 1988). Evidently, during the past two centuries, use of languages in education has been increasingly politicized. History has repeated itself but in modified ways. The acceptance of languages in education observed in the early part of the 19th century was apparent again in the 1970s but languages other than English appeared in schools with a much lower status with respect to English than they had a century earlier. The imposition of English only at the turn of the century reappeared in the 1980s, although this time some minority students were served by special English language programs rather than leaving all to sink or swim. Efforts to make English speakers fluent in other languages have also seen ups and downs. Suspicion toward foreigners in the early part of the century discouraged second language learning. Interest in foreign language learning following World War II wavered in the 1970s. The pendulum is swinging again in favor of bilingualism for English speakers. Foreign language programs are starting earlier in elementary schools and bilingual education programs that promote bilingualism are becoming increasingly popular (Met & Galloway, 1992). However, most successful bilingual programs have been created not by legislative mandates but by concerned educators and communities working together. Good education for bilingual students should not be the outcome of compliance with legislation. Schools must be willing to create good programs suitable for all students, including bilinguals. To overcome resistance to implementing bilingual education, many communities resort to politics or lawsuits to force school districts to provide bilingual education. However, political solutions create their own problems, paradoxically compromise and rigidity. For example, laws and regulations that impose a 3-year maximum for students attending bilingual education programs arose as a compromise between the forces for and against bilingual education. Research shows time and again that students profit from long-term bilingual instruction, even though some students who stay shorter periods eventually succeed in mainstream education (Kleinfeld, 1979). Consequently, it is clear that historically Americans have not showed great tolerance to linguistic diversity. There have been repeated efforts to make English an official language in the country by restricting bilingualism, as well as attempts to enhance more ESL programs on the other side. There is an ongoing disagreement regarding whether or not ESL program meets its initial objective, the ways it affects American society, and its necessity. The opponents of bilingual teaching argue it is expensive for the country, keeps immigrants socially isolated, slows down the assimilation process, creates a retreat of an official language and dissolves the unity of America. Generally, a lot of people form negative assumptions about bilingual programs based on their ideological beliefs, political views, personal observations, negative experience or simply generalizations and stereotyping based on limited knowledge about ESL classes (Rojas, 2003). These judgments usually lack evidence and logical reasoning, and thus cannot objectively analyze the program’s weaknesses or disadvantages. As Maria Brisk observes, â€Å"Much of the debate on bilingual education is politically motivated, more suitable for talk shows than for improving schools† (Rojas, 2003). And indeed, ESL programs are viewed more as a tool to solve multiple social problems (which, certainly, are also important)–minority groups’ rights, language diversity, melting pot, the unity of the country, a threat to the existence of dominant culture, and so on–instead of focusing on the quality of education our school-age population is receiving and the environment they are placed in. Policymakers should definitely pay more attention to the program’s educational effectiveness and dramatic improvement in students’ academic progress when deciding whether public schools need ESL classes. Because public schools have quite a significant influence on children’s learning and personal development, we are responsible of making it a positive schooling experience for all students despite their ethnic background or native language. Bilingual education helps students to learn English faster, provides a friendly learning environment, improves academic progress, encourages kids to become proficient in two languages, teaches cultural awareness, and preserves minorities’ linguistic human rights. It has been proven that students who are enrolled in bilingual classes have better scores on standardized tests, such as the ACT’s and SAT’s, than those who are not enrolled in bilingual classes. Bilingual education is beneficial for our country and enables students to learn English as well as keeping their native tongue for future success in our global economy. Bilingual education works in our society and should stay intact within the schools and should be funded to enable students who wish to take these classes should be able to. However, it is not the question of whether bilingual programs work (obviously they do), but more the question of how our society addresses cultural and linguistic diversity. Recent studies have proven that bilingual teaching dramatically increases students’ educational progress both in English communicational skills and other content in curriculum. Students who attend a regular English class right away usually fall behind in subjects taught in English and experience negative consequences in psychological development. ESL system doesn’t disregard the need for acquisition of English; indeed, it one of the most important outcomes of effective bilingual education programs (Zehr, 2004). Looking at the money spent on bilingual education program (when funds are being cut off from other public services across the country) may lead to consideration of abolishing bilingual system and focusing on the projects that affect all students in education system instead. The United States spends approximately $12 billion on bilingual education each year (Wood, 1997) and over $100 million was spent to study the effectiveness of ESL programs (Mujica, 2003). Because American taxpayers don’t benefit from bilingual instruction directly, many communities and states are unwilling to pay that expense and are quick to cut back regardless its potential positive results. Nevertheless, even though we give up other things that could be otherwise purchased, bilingual programs in public schools is a critical factor in foreign students’ learning process. Besides the fact that bilingual teaching dramatically increases academic performance, it also encourages more parents to send their children to school and that, in turn, motivates more students to become educated. In other words, the money spent on ESL programs should not be associated with an opportunity cost of ignoring other important problems. Instead, it is a valuable investment in students’ success at school as well as assimilation into American society. The issue of bilingual education in relationship to our global economy enables students enrolled in these classes to have a better future than those students who only speak English. Jeff MacSwan, supporter of bilingual education and assistant professor of curriculum and instruction at Arizona State University, is quoted about bilingual education in our global economy when he says, â€Å"Multilingualism is an asset, and Arizona must embrace it† (MacSwan, 1998). Arizona Senator John McCain also believes that bilingual education is an asset to children. He states that, â€Å"Arizona should strengthen them (bilingual classes) and make similar resources available to all children† (MacSwan). In fact, McCain has introduced a program that enables students to be in programs like these. McCain’s program is called â€Å"English-Plus† (MaSwan) which acknowledges the great importance of bilingualism in our modern global economy. McCain is quoted concerning bilingual education when he says, â€Å"People should not have to abandon the language of their birth to learn the language of their future†¦The ability to speak languages in addition to English is a tremendous resource to our community† (MacSwan). In addition, the benefits of bilingual education in our global economy can be seen when US Secretary Richard Riley said, â€Å"When they enter the work force in several years we will regret the inability of our children to speak two languages. Our global economy demands it; our children deserve it† (Pratt, 2000). Undoubtedly, in addition to educational advantage, adult bilinguals with a complete grasp of two or more languages, can be more successful economically and benefit more to their communities than their single-language peers. Our public services employ staff as translators in order to keep abreast of the constantly growing immigrant population. Increased marketable skills are an advantage of bilingual fluency. Because of the aforementioned educational advantages, bilinguals can offer a flexibility and level of problem-solving ability that surpasses the average monolingual. According to Graciela Kenig, author of The Best Careers for Bilingual Latinos: Market Your Fluency in Spanish to get Ahead on the Job, employers are looking for people â€Å"with a broader scope of experience and strong problem-solving ability. † (1998, p. 5). The marketplace is also focusing on the global economy. Bilinguals are uniquely qualified to give the U. S. a competitive edge. The utilization of well-educated American bilinguals can give our country a significant advantage in the global marketplace. In aspect of Rudolph Giuliani’s view that bilingual education doesn’t work and that it is too expensive should be better thought out and he should look at the benefits that come from it. Giuliani was quoted regarding bilingual education by saying, â€Å"It’s cruel to them and gives them less of a chance to succeed† (Willen, 1998). Giuliani has some reason to argue that it is too expensive considering that â€Å"New York City alone spends $300 million annually on its program serving 126,000 students† (Chavez, 1995). In addition, Giuliani has a reason to argue that bilingual education it too time consuming considering the outrageous number of students who are eligible for bilingual classes. Although these are good reasons Giuliani should realize that, â€Å"half the Hispanic children in bilingual classes (New York City) are American-born. And many- if not most- speak English better than they do Spanish† (Chavez, 1995). The number one reason why these students are enrolled in these particular classes is because that New York automatically places these students in these classes by whether or not they score above the 40th percentile on a standard eyes test. These tests should not be done because it is evident that the students are learning English just maybe not as fast at other students. Giuliani’s claims are somewhat relevant but he should consider all of the benefits that come from bilingual education. Although Giuliani believes it is too expensive this should not be an issue considering that our country can benefit as a whole with multilingualism. During the Restrictive Period (1880s-1960s) the need of being able to effectively communicate in English was motivating immigrants to learn the language and assimilate into society (Ovando, 2003). Single language was meant to unify the members of a society (Schaefer, 2003, p. 66). However, today conformity to a single language would probably be regarded as â€Å"racist† (Mujica, 2003). Currently, most people would rather agree with Eliana D. Rojas, an assistant professor of bilingual education, that the right to maintain one’s native language and culture is a part of a person’s human rights (Mujica). The main reason so many people protest attempts to implement bilingual programs in public schools is a belief that such step will lead to dissolving the unity of the country. The government provides funds for translators in most government organizations which allow immigrants to function in their own language, doesn’t encourage foreigners to learn English and thus isolates them from the rest of the community. In response, they are more likely to form a small group or even a subculture within the dominant society with different norms, values and language. â€Å"We cannot assimilate and we won’t! † one day proclaimed the executive director of the League of United Latin American Citizens, an organization originally supporting pro assimilation (Mujica, 2003, p. 2). According to the Census statistics in 2000, 18 percent of American population over the age of 5 speaks a language other than English as their primary language (Schaefer, 2003, p. 65), while 8 percent of them are classified as â€Å"limited English proficient† (Mujica, 2003, p. 2). Hispanic population is the fastest growing minority in the U. S. and large parts of the country are becoming increasingly â€Å"Latinized†. Americans â€Å"feel strangers in their own neighborhoods and aliens in their own country† (Schaefer, 2003, p. 66). It may look like sooner or later we will have to say â€Å"Hasta la Vista to the ‘United’ States and Adelante to Canadian-style discord over the issues of language and ethnicity† (Mujica, 2003, p. 4). Therefore, blaming such programs as bilingual instructing in schools is based primarily on nationalistic concerns. The recent studies have proven, though, that only a small percent of children attending bilingual classrooms will still be able to communicate in their native language in a few years (Worthy, 2003). In some ESL classes students are actually encouraged to maintain their first language and are introduced to elements from both American and their native cultures. It seems apparent that a child will more likely associate himself or herself with other immigrants rather than Americans and it may seem hard for that student to assimilate into American society. It may be difficult for him or her to learn English later because any language cannot be taught successfully in isolation – proficient communicational skills can only develop through everyday practice and a practical need to apply new knowledge. In reality it takes about the same time for a person to learn English in the all-English class than gradually switching from the native language to the regular English instructing. Despite the fact they differ in the length of the transition to English and how long they allow students to remain in bilingual classrooms, all ESL students receive enough practice and even become monolingual English speakers pretty soon, as a yearlong study of fifth-grade children attending bilingual class has proven (Worthy, 2003). As the teacher encouraged students to read, write and speak Spanish, most of them were losing their ability to communicate in Spanish and had English as their dominant language both in school and informal situations. The study concludes that at a certain time social and peer pressure are more important for children than family influence, the reason why many of them started feeling uncomfortable speaking their native language with their friends (Worthy, 2003). Evidently, bilingual education is an asset to our country and the benefits can be seen throughout our global economy. People such as Giuliani should embrace the idea of this type of education and should help fund programs as it will undoubtedly further enrich our economy. In addition, why should students loose their native language simply for the reason that the majority of people speak English? The ability to speak multiple languages enables them for future aspirations, success, and priority over those who can only speak only English fluently. Our society extremely benefits from bilingual education and there no significant reason for eliminating it. All in all, bilingual education in public schools is definitely not a threat to an official language or unity of the country. Nor it is a waste of funds since it is so essential in children’s first years of education. ESL classes do not slow down assimilation, and even if in some cases American culture is so diverse that even abolishing all programs helping immigrants to maintain their language will not have a great impact on American melting pot. Instead, English-only initiatives have only negative consequences for limited-English proficient groups and their interaction with the dominant society (Barker, 2001). Abolishing bilingual education in schools will not create an intense for immigrants to learn English, but most likely will result in protests, racial conflicts, even prejudice against minority groups, and that is a certain way to dissolve a country. References August, D. , & Garcia E. E. (1988). Language minority education in the United States. Springfield, IL: Thomas. Barker, Valerie, Howard Giles, Kimberly Noels, Julie Duck, Michael Hecht, and Richarde Clement. (Mar 2001). The English-only movement: A Communication analysis of changing perceptions of language vitality. Journal of Communication,51 (1), 3. Proquest. DeVry University, Federal Way, WA. Retrieved February 3, 2006 from http:\www. il. proquest. compdauto>. Chavez, Linda. (1995, April 2). Bilingual education was to teach English, not trap students. 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