Positive And Negative Aspects Of Special Education

Significant changes have taken place over the past century regarding the field of special education. Some changes include; how students with disabilities are perceived in American society, the instructional practices of educators, and implementing federal legislation which address the needs of students with disabilities in public schools. These issues have impacted special education in both positive and negative ways. The purpose of this essay is to compare and contrast important positive and negative changes in special education. In addition, implementing further measures of reform are likely to occur in the future. American society’s perception of individuals with disabilities has drastically changed within the past hundred years. Historically, students with disabilities were not treated fairly by society. Many people shared the believe that students with disabilities were incapable of being educated and were not allowed to attend public schools. This negative way of thinking gradually began to shift over time. Professional educational figures began showing concern about the welfare of students with disabilities. Samuel Gridley Howe and later Alexander Graham Bell both had voiced their concern about the effect of serving children in settings that allowed youngsters to associate only with peers with similar disabilities. They believed that this type of residential segregation tended to reinforce and exaggerate disabilities. While attending a meeting of the NationalShow MoreRelatedCareer in Special Education Essay1645 Words   |  7 PagesIn the profession of a special education teacher, a person commits to helping children achieve their best and to help â€Å"students overcome their obstacles† while finding a way that the child can effectively learn (Hollingsworth). 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Inclusion: The Best Possible Outcome.1343 Words   |  6 PagesMainstreaming vs. Inclusion: The Best Possible Outcome While there are many aspects of the education system that are constantly under question and review there is a relatively new idea that is changing the classroom dynamic all together. The question is if mainstreaming students with disabilities or having special classrooms to meet their needs enhances their learning experience. The traditional classroom environment for children with special needs is to be in their own classrooms with specific teachers whoRead MoreLifelong Learning1178 Words   |  5 Pageschild has special needs parents must learn this whole new language of medical and special education terms (Overton, 2005). Parents enter this new world where navigating for the best interest of their child is riddled with challenges and obstacles that they need to somehow overcome. 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Hall 8/2009 Introduction Educators and parents sometimes have very different views on the education of their children and the best approaches to classroom process. Educational initiatives since the implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) has led to increasing focus on providing parents with adequate data for decision-making and promoting positive parent/teacher interactions. For children with learning disabilities, the team approach based on interactions between

Screening Lung Cancer Literature Review Free Essays

Introduction Lung Cancer is the most common form of cancer diagnosed worldwide with respect to incidence and mortality. In 2008 in the UK, lung cancer accounted for 6% of all deaths and 22% of all deaths from cancer (Cancer Research UK, 2011). It is the leading cause of cancer related death in both men (24%) and women (21%) (Cancer Research UK, 2011). We will write a custom essay sample on Screening Lung Cancer: Literature Review or any similar topic only for you Order Now The 5-year survival rate is less than 10% in UK has not significantly improved in the past 20 years despite the advances in imaging and non-imaging diagnostic tests, surgical techniques and postoperative management, radiotherapy delivery and new chemotherapeutic agents (Ghosal et al., 2009). People who are at high-risk of having lung cancer in their life-time include smokers, ex-smokers, who have COPD and who have been exposed to industrial carcinogens such as asbestos and silica (Black et al.,2006). Due to its high prevalence and mortality rates, easily identifiable at-risk population, lung cancer appears to be an ideal candidate for mass screening (Reich et a.,2007), and hence active research has been carried on since the 1950’s to detect lung cancer in an asymptomatic population at an early stage when it is localized and potentially curable (Bach et al.,2007). The efficacy of a screening programme is judged by its capability to reduce disease-specific mortality and improve survival. On reviewing the literature it is evident that lung cancer screening has been an active field of research appealing many, however also a controversial topic. It is debated mainly in terms of cost effectiveness of the services, ideal diagnostic tests, benefits, harms, influence on mortality and survival, study design, inherent biases such as lead-time bias, length time bias, overdiagnosis bias (Patz et a.,2000). Currently there is no mass screening programme in the UK. â€Å"The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) considers evidence of both clinical and cost effectiveness when deciding on whether or not to sanction the introduction of new NHS treatments or services† (Whynes ,2008). The aim of this review is to give an overview about the principles underlining screening, to synthesize and evaluate information from recent evidence provided by clinical studies and RCT’s for lung cancer screening and the issues pertaining to it, review the range of diagnostic test best suitable for screening and overall assess the feasibility of a screening programme and test if evidence support the hypothesis that early detection leads to reduction in mortality. Methods Identification of Studies Literature search was conducted using electronic databases such as AMED, EMBASE, Ovid MEDLINE(R), [email protected], Science Direct, Google Scholar using search terms: lung carcinoma, lung cancer screening limiting the search from 1995-2011,clinical trials for screening lung cancer was searched without any time limits and past and on-going clinical trials were identified from National Cancer Institute USA and Cancer Research UK using the clinical trials and research search tool. Lung Cancer was searched using the same search terms to identify studies. Reference list of systemic reviews and other studies was scanned. Quality of the studies was judged on their source of publication and the number of times the particular article was cited by others. Selection of papers Initial literature search on LCS resulted in a large number of papers with potential titles which were then filtered by selecting papers based on the relevance of the title to the topic and by reading the abstracts. Full papers of the relevant studies were then retrieved and reviewed. Inclusion Papers on screening for lung cancer were considered as the theme as opposed to diagnosing and staging of LC. Primary search for studies included: systemic reviews, RCT’s,non-randomized cohort / case-control studies, economical analysis, smoking cessation and lifestyle changes. Studies including other interventions such as CXR, sputum cytology, autofluroescence bronchoscopy, LDCT,PET, biomarkers was considered, however LDCT emerged as the modality of choice due to its technical and clinical abilities. Exclusion Papers not published in English were excluded. Data extraction and synthesis Substantive data was extracted from the papers. Methodological information regarding the information on participants regarding the entry criteria used such as age, smoking history(PY) and status i.e. current or former, sub-group of high–risk patients with COPD and occupational based risk factors was collected. Data from the results of the studies in terms of prevalence, detection, survival and mortality rates was noted along with disease stage and follow-up period. Outcome Measures The primary outcome was to assess the influence of LCS on mortality. Secondary outcomes were the effectiveness of screening clinically and economically, and the impact of screening on lifestyle changes and smoking behavior. Screening â€Å"Screening means testing people for early stages of a disease before they have any symptoms† (Cancer Research UK, 2011). Screening for LC is highly debated due to lack of evidence provided by past RCT’s showing reduction in mortality and due to the high costs for screening LC . WHO Screening Guidelines 1.) â€Å"The condition should be an important health problem 2.) The disease should have significant mortality 3.) There should be a latent phase of the disease 4.) Intervention earlier in the disease process should improve outcomes 5.) The screening test itself should have certain characteristics 6.)The cost of finding a case using the screening technique should be considered in relation to medical expenditure as a whole† Table 1: WHO Screening Guidelines. (Reproduced from Ghosal et al, 2009). Results Studies Included Using the electronic databases 42 studies was included and were categorized based on the nature of the study and relating to the endpoint of this review. They were categorized as: Randomized controlled trials (RCT), non randomized cohort/control studies, cost-effectiveness studies and studies that evaluated the impact of screening on smoking behavior and lifestyle. RCT’s On reviewing the literature 8 RCT’s were identified that were conducted in the past, which are current and which are on-going. Two large RCTs namely NLST (National Lung Screening Trial) (NLST Team, 2010) conducted in the USA compared LDCT and CXR’s among screened patients and NELSON (Dutch Belgian randomised lung cancer screening trial) (Netherlands Trial Register, 2011) is currently underway in the Netherlands comparing LDCT with no LDCT. Small RCT’s namely LSS (Lung Screening Study) (Gohagan et al., 2004), DEPISCAN (French pilot RCT) (Blanchon et al.,2007), DANTE (Infante et al.,2008), ITALUNG ( Pegna et al.,2009) randomized their study population into two arms in which LDCT was considered as the active arm. In the UK an randomized trial funded by the NIHR HTA called the UKLS (UK Lung Cancer Screening Trial) (Baldwin et al.,2011) is underway and is based on the initial results of the NLST. It is working closely with the NELSON trial to maximize the data available(NIHR Health Technology Assessment programme,2011).Features of these RCT’s with their aim and outcome have been outlined in Table 2. PLCO is a large RCT studying the impact on mortality reduction by screening patients with CXR(National cancer institute,2011). Table 2: Noteworthy RCT’s using LDCT for lung cancer screening. Study Ref Country Study Design Study start Year Aim of the Study Age Range No. of Subjects No. of subjects in the LDCT arm No. of subjects in the Control Arm Smoking History Study Outcome UKLS[Ongoing]( Baldwin et al.,2011)UK LDCT vs. Obs2008 The objective of the UKLS trial is to assess whether LDCTscreening and treatment of early lesions will reduce LC mortality in comparison to a control group without screening and to investigate if LC screening programme could be implemented in UK while ensuring any benefit exceeds harms in a cost-effective manner. 4000 (28000 if progression criteria met )– – NANA NELSON[Ongoing](Netherlands Trial register, 2011).NL-B-DK LSCT vs. Obs2003 1. To prove that in a RCT, screening with LDCT in high risk subjects will lead to a 25% decrease in lung cancer mortality. 2. To estimate the impact of lung cancer screening on health related quality of life and smoking cessation; 3. To estimate cost-effectiveness and help policy making.50-75156007915790715 cigs/day 25 years OR10 cigs/day 30 yearsNA NLST[Recent](NLST Team,2010)USA LDCT vs. CXR2003 To compare LC mortality of subjects screened with LDCT and with subjects screened with CXR.55-74530002672326733? 30 PYInitial results, shows 20 % fewer lung cancer deaths among trial participants screened LDCT compared to CXR. ITALUNG-CT (Pegna et al.,2009)Italy LDCT vs. Obs2004 ITALUNG is a population-based recruitment RCT perspective of pooling data with other RCTs in Europe andUS [14,22] contributing to the cooperative effort for the evaluation of the efficacy of low-dose CT lung cancer screening.55-6932061613159320 PYPopulation-based enrolment of high-risk subjects for aRCT of lung cancer screening with low-dose CT is feasible. The number of drop-outs in the group of subjects randomized to the active arm is low. LSS ( Gohagan et al.,2004)USA LDCT vs. CXR2002 To assessthe feasibility of conducting a large scale RCT of LDCT versus CXR for LC screening.55-74331816601658?30 PARCT comparing annual spiral CT to CXR is feasible.. DANTE( Infante et al.,2007)Italy LDCT vs. CXR + Sputum cytology2001 To determine the efficacy of lung cancer screening with low-dose CT on LC mortality.LC prevalence, incidence, stage distribution, and resectability are secondary endpoints60-74247212761196?20 PYLC Stage I detection rate in the spiral CT arm was 4 times higher than CXR’s.Advance stage tumors were also detected by CT. High resection rate suggests possible increase in cure rate. Longer follow up suggested. Depiscan-France[Pilot RCT results ]( Blanchon et a.,2007).France LDCT vs. CXR2002 â€Å"To determine the feasibility of enrollment byGPs, investigations and diagnostic procedures by university hospital radiologists and multidisciplinary teams, data management by centralized clinical research assistants, and anticipate the future management of a large national trial†(Blanchon et a.,2007)50-75621385380? 15 cigs/day for 20 YearsThis pilot trial allows estimating that non-calcified nodules are 10 timesmore often detected by LDCT than from CXR. It concludes that enrollment by GP’s was difficult and expresses the need for a large co-ordinate clinical research team in a trial. Clinical Effectiveness: Studies 34 studies were included and broken down to different sub-groups: With comparators, without comparators and other methods.RCT by Garg et al.(2002) compared LDCT versus no screening among patients with COPD and smoking history. Non-randomized studies by Henschke et al.(1999,2001,2004,2006)compared LDCT with CXR Swenson et al.(2002,2003,2005) compared CT with sputum cytology, Sobue et al.,2002 compared CT with CXR and sputum cytology. Studies by Pastorino et al.(2003) and Bastarrika et al.(2005) used LDCT along with PET without any comparator group. Futher prospective, non-randomized cohort studies by Sone et al(.2001);Nawa et al.(2002); Diederich et al.(2002,2004); MacRedmond et al.(2004,2006);Novello et al.(2005);Chong et al.(2004); Menezes et al.(2009) were single arm studies using LDCT. Several of these studies have been summarized with their results elsewhere (Yau et al., 2007). A study by Chien et al. (2008)estimated the mean-sojurm time and effect of mortality reduction by LDCT .I-ECAP study (Henschke et al., 2006) reported survival rates of screen diagnosed stage I cancers.The chosen trials sample populations were predominantly male and over the age of 40(Yau et al., 2007). The participants consisted of non-smokers as well as former or current smokers and who have COPD and who have been exposed to asbestos. Other tests for LCS: In a bimodality lung cancer surveillance trial in high–risk patients Lowen et al.,(2006) combined autofluorescent bronchoscopy (AFB)and LDCT, findings from AFB were compared to sputum cytology results .186 patients were enrolled who fulfilled the high-risk criteria and 169 completed baseline tests,7% were diagnosed with lung cancer . Bimodality surveillance could detect lung cancer and pre-malignancy in patients with multiple lung cancer risk factors despite sputum cytology findings and AFB proves to be an effective test in high-risk patients (Lowen et al., 2006). A RCT in UK called the Lung-SEARCH study is looking at detecting early LC using LDCT and fluorescence bronchoscopy in people with COPD (UKCRN,2011). In a cross-sectional study by Carozzi et al.(2009), potential use of molecular genetic markers for screening and diagnostic purposes were evaluated which could be combined with LDCT . Biomarkers detected in biological fluid help us understand the connection between genetic alternations and/or molecular pathways changes which will help us detect lung cancer earlier and reduce mortality (Carozzi et al., 2009). â€Å"Multi-screening approach integrating imaging technique and biomolecular marker could be used to improve screening for lung cancer and is worth of further investigation† (Carozzi. et al.,2009) The MEDLUNG study in UK is currently underway, looking at detecting early LC amongst high-risk patients using biomarkers (UKCRN,2011) Cost Effectiveness A systemic review by Black et al., in 2006 assessed the clinical and cost-effectiveness of CT for LC screening, six studies that described full economic evaluation was identified by scanning the reference list. Further two studies evaluating the cost effectiveness in an UK and Australian setup were looked upon. Economic and mathematical models were used to calculate cost-effectiveness ratios based on study assumptions. Characteristics of the economic studies are described in Table 3. Ref. Type of evaluation synthesis Interventions Study Population Country Period of study Okamoto, 2000 CEA; Total cost for one life saved; total cost for mean life expectancy saved. Mass screening(indirect CXR for all screened sputum cytology for high-risk individuals) in 1983 1993 and CT option Age- 40-84 years Japan 5 years Marshall et al.,2000 Incremental CEA; incremental cost per LYG LDCT vs. No screening Hypothetical cohort of 100,000 high risk-individuals (60-74 years) USA 5 years Marshall et al.,2001 Incremental CEA CUA; incremental cost per LY saved and cost per QALY saved. Annual scan with LDCT vs. no screening Hypothetical cohort of 100,000 high risk-individuals (60-74 years) USA 5 years Chirikos et al.,2002 Incremental CEA; incremental cost per LYG; cost per cancer case detected. 5 annual screening with LDCT vs. no screening. Hypothetical cohort of screened and unscreened patients from general population (Age ? 45-74 years) USA 15 years Mahadevia et al.,2003 Incremental CUA; incremental cost per QALY gained. Annual screen with LDCT vs. No screening. Hypothetical cohort of 100,000 current, quitting former smokers, Age ?60; 55 % male. USA 40 years Wisnivesky et al.,2003 Incremental CEA; incremental cost per LY saved. Single scan with LDCT vs. No screening. High-risk individuals, Age ?60 USA Cost restricted to 1 year. Manser et al.,2004 Incremental CEA; incremental cost per LY saved and QALY saved. 5 annual screening with LDCT vs. no screening Hypothetical cohort of 10000 male; age ? 60 Australia 5 years Whynes, 2008 Incremental CEA; incremental cost per QALY gained Single scan with LDCT vs. no screening, if positive further diagnostic tests to be undergone. Hypothetical cohort; high-risk male population using values of test parameters from previous clinical studies. UK – Table 3~: Characteristics of economic evaluation studies (Reproduced from Black et al., 2006) and data from other studies. Impact on Lifestyle Smoking Cessation Lifestyle is a major modifiable cause of cancer and cancer-related mortality (Aalst et al.,2010). A review based on recent evidence published by studies, Aalst et al. (2010) indicated that screening may have a positive outcome hereby promoting healthy lifestyle but also cautions us that it can also encourage people to continue or start an unhealthy lifestyle. Lung cancer screening can prove to be a teachable moment for smoking cessation and may influence people to quit smoking (Taylor et al., 2006). Discussion Mortality rates gives us the true outcome of a test as it is unconfounded by bias (Black et al.,2006). An effective screening programme should be able to identify high-risk groups depending on age, gender, lifestyle and occupation and have high sensitivity and specificity eventually resulting in reduction of mortality. Studies by Henschke et al.(2000),Nawa et a.(2002), Gohagan et al.(2004),Menezes et al.(2009) reported high sensitivity and specificity above 80%,Sone et al.(2001) and Pastorino et al.,(2003) reported low sensitivities and Swensen et al.(2002) ,Diederich et al.(2002,2004) reported low specificities. Discrepancy resided amongst studies due to the variation in the entry criteria such as age, gender, PY, high-risk sample and threshold values set (?5 – ? 20mm) for detecting suspicious lesions which made it difficult to compare results and determine the ideal criteria for diagnosis of a screening programme. Prevalence screening with LDCT revealed that majority of cancers reported were Stage I non-small cell lung cancer (53-100 %)(Yau et a.,2007)though advance stage cancers were also reported with other histological types of cancers. ELCAP,DANTE, LSS studies along with Swensen et al.(2002) found that CT was more effective at identifying cancerous NCN’s than CXR’s.It should be noted that CT detects more peripherally located tumors than centrally located ones which are difficult to diagnose(Postmus et al.,2004). I-ELCAP study (Henschke et al.,2006) reported a 10-year survival rate of 88% for the whole series and 92% for resected stage I patients. By estimating shorter MST in conjunction with other parameters Chien et al.(2008) predicted that 15% mortality reduction can be seen for an annual LDCT screening. Initial results from NLST showed 20 % reduction in mortality in the LDCT arm, however final results are yet to be published(NLST Team,2010). This trial hereby the only RCT to date that has proved clinical effectiveness against mortality reduction. However it should be noted that operating characteristics can be influenced by high false positive and false negative rates. High FP rates due to detection of benign lesions and lack of standardized threshold for positive screen have been reported thus resulting in low PPV(Yau et al.,2007).This is one of the hurdles in implementing LDCT for LCS.True estimation of TN rates cannot be established due to incomplete follow-up of negative baseline scans and shorter follow-up duration thus leading to high NPV(Yau et al.2007). Accuracy also depends on the ability of the reporting radiologist(Sone et al.,2001). The assumption that a â€Å"stage-shift† would result in decrease in mortality needs to be more carefully evaluated as it would lead to decrease in inoperable cases and an increase in operable cases which means that LC incidence will occur as a result of overdiagnosis bias(Beplor et al.,2003). Both clinical effectiveness along with cost-effectiveness hurdle needs to be overcome (which presently poses a greater challenge) to fulfill the criteria of a screening programme(Gleeson ,2006) Inherent biases present in studies i.e. lead-time bias, length bias and over-diagnosis bias and should be accounted for in CEA and analytical methods as they can affect cost-effectiveness ratios (demonstrated by the cost-evaluation studies included) and survival and mortality benefit may be overestimated(Black et al,2006) .If evidence from LCS studies provide health gains in terms of quality and quantity of life with modest additional cost per patient, cost-effectiveness can be justified (Black et al.,2006).More complete and transparent CEA are required (Patz et al.,2000). According to the HTA report published in 2006 by Black et al., LDCT for screening LC does not meet the accepted NSC criteria due to unsatisfactory clinical and cost –effectiveness evidence. According to NICE the screening programme needs to pass the cost per QALY threshold of ?20,000–30,000 per QALY (NIHCE,2005). However due to the rise in public expectations which adds additional burden on the services provided by NHS, the imbalance between demand versus supply and the rise in cost of health care services, it seems that even if NSC criteria are satisfied implementation of LDCT as a screening programme would be economically and logistically challenging with respect to the capital cost involved in setting up a multi centre nationalized screening programme Conclusion Based on this literature review, it has emerged that LDCT is the choice of screening tool for LCS, however integrated imaging with AFB and PET and advances in genomic and proteomic approaches promises to compliment the ability of CT to detect LC(Carozzi et al.2010).Economic decision-making framework should include harms of screening along with the mortality and morbidity associated with it, radiation exposure risks as a result of repeated follow-ups(Black et al.,2006) .Included studies did not account for this. Past and on-going LDCT studies need to be carefully evaluated and screening progrmme should be designed based on the country’s merits and population distribution. NRCT’s have failed to establish reduction in mortality and hence evidence from large RCT’s proving the hypothesis and screening efficacy is of paramount importance for introducing a population screening progrmme. Results are awaited from these RCT’s. References: Andrea Lopes Pegna, Giulia Picozzi, Mario Mascalchi, Francesca Maria Carrozzi, Laura Carozzi,Camilla Comin, Cheti Spinelli , Fabio Falaschi, Michela Grazzini, Florio Innocenti, Cristina Ronchi, Eugenio Paci, 2009, Design, recruitment and baseline results of the ITALUNG trial for lung cancer screening with low-dose CT, Lung Cancer ;64 34–40. C Black, A Bagust, A Boland, S Walker,C McLeod, R De Verteuil, J Ayres, L Bain,S Thomas, D Godden and N Waugh,2006, The clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of computed tomography screening for lung cancer: systematic reviews, Health Technology Assessment; Vol. 10: No. 3. C.M. van der Aalst, R.J. van Klaveren, H.J. de Koning, 2010, Does participation to screening unintentionally influence lifestyle behaviour and thus lifestyle-related morbidity?, Best Practice Research Clinical Gastroenterology ;24 465–478. Claudia I. Henschke, David F, Yankelevitz, Daniel M. Libby, Mark W. Pasmantier, James P Smith, Olli S. Miettinen, McGill ( ELCAP Investigators),2006,Survival of Patients with Stage I Lung Cancer Detected on CT Screening, N Engl J Med;355:1763-71. Claudia I Henschke ,Dorothy I McCauley ,Prof.David F Yankelevitz, Prof.David P Naidich ,Georgeann McGuinness ,ProfOlli S Miettinen, ProfDaniel M Libby ,ProfMark W Pasmantier, June Koizumi ,ProfNasser K Altorki ,ProfJames P Smith, 1999, Early Lung Cancer Action Project: overall design and findings from baseline screening, The Lancet ;Volume 354, Issue 9173, Pages 99-105 . C.I. Henschke, D.P. Naidich, D.F. Yankelevitz, G. McGuinness, D.I. McCauley and J.P. Smith ,2001, Early Lung Cancer Action Project: initial findings on repeat screening, Cancer ;92 : pp. 153–159. Claudia I. Henschkea , David F. Yankelevitz, James P. Smith, Daniel Libby, Mark Pasmantier, Dorothy McCauley, Georgeann McGuinness, David P. Naidich, Ali Farooqi, Madeline Vasquez, Olli S. Miettinen,2004, CT screening for lung cancer Assessing a regimen’s diagnostic performance, Journal of Clinical Imaging;28 317–321. 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D R Baldwin,S W Duffy,N J Wald, R Page, D M Hansell, J K Field, 2010, UK Lung Screen (UKLS) nodule management protocol: modelling of a single screen randomised controlled trial of low-dose CT screening for lung cancer, Thorax 2011;66:308-313. Edward F. Patz , JR.,Philip C. Goodman ,Gerold Bepler , 2000, Cureent Concepts- ung Cancer Screening, The New England Journal of Medicine, Volume 343 Number 22. Francesca Maria Carozzi, Simonetta Bisanzia, Patrizia Falini ,Cristina Sani, Giulia Venturini,Andrea Lopes Pegna, Roberto Bianchi, Cristina Ronchi, Giulia Picozzi, Mario Mascalchi, Laura Carrozzi, Filomena Baliva, Francesco Pistelli, Laura Tavanti, Fabio Falaschi, Michela Grazzini, Florio Innocenti, Eugenio Paci, 2010, Molecular profile in body fluids in subjects enrolled in a randomised trial for lung cancer screening: Perspectives of integrated strategies for early diagnosis, Lung Cancer; 68 216–221 F V Gleeson, 2006, Is screening for lung cancer using low dose spiral CT scanning worthwhile?, Thorax 61:5–7. Gary Yau, Michael Lock, George Rodrigues, 2007, Systematic review of baseline low-dose CT lung cancer screening, Lung Cancer ;58, 161—170. Gorka Bastarrika, Mara Jose? Garca-Velloso, Maria Dolores Lozano, Usua Montes, Wenceslao Torre, Natalia Spiteri, Arantza Campo, Luis Seijo, Ana Bele?n Alcaide, Jesu? s Pueyo, David Cano, Isabel Vivas, Octavio Cosn, Pablo Domnguez, Patricia Serra, Jose? A. Richter, Luis Montuenga, and Javier J. Zulueta, 2005, Early Lung Cancer Detection Using Spiral Computed Tomography and Positron Emission Tomography, Am J Respir Crit Care Med; Vol 171. pp 1378–1383. Gerold Bepler, Dawn Goodridge Carney, Benjamin Djulbegovic, Robert A. Clark,Melvyn Tockman, 2003, A Systematic Review and Lessons Learned From Early Lung Cancer Detection Trials Using Low-Dose Computed Tomography of the Chest, Cancer Control; July/August : Vol.10, No.4. Gregory Loewen,Nachimuthu Natarajan, Dongfeng Tan, Enriqueta Nava4, Donald Klippenstein5, Martin Mahoney2, Michael Cummings2,Mary Reid, 2007, Autofluorescence bronchoscopy for lung cancer surveillance based on risk assessment[abstract], Thorax ;62:335-340 John K. Gohagan, Pamela M. Marcus, Richard M. Fagerstrom,Paul F. Pinsky, Barnett S. Kramer, Philip C. Prorok, Susan Ascher,William Bailey, Brenda Brewer, Timothy Church, Deborah Engelhard,Melissa Ford, Mona Fouad, Matthew Freedman, Edward Gelmann, David Gierada, William Hocking, Subbarao Inampudi, Brian Irons,Christine Cole Johnson, Arthur Jones, Gena Kucera, Paul Kvale, Karen Lappe, William Manor, Alisha Moore, Hrudaya Nath, Sarah Neff,Martin Oken, Michael Plunkett, Helen Price, Douglas Reding, Thomas Riley, Martin Schwartz, David Spizarny, Roberta Yoffie, Carl Zylak Kathryn L. Taylor, Lisa Sanderson Cox, Nicole Zincke, 2004, Final results of the Lung Screening Study, a randomized feasibility study of spiral CT versus chest X-ray screening for lung cancer, Lung Cancer (2005) 47, 9—15. J M Reich, 2007, A critical appraisal of overdiagnosis: estimates of its magnitude and implications for lung cancer screening, Thorax 2008;63:377–383. Juan P. Wisnivesky, Alvin I. Mushlin, Nachum Sicherman, Claudia Henschke, 2003, The Cost-Effectiveness of Low-Dose CT Screening for Lung Cancer* Preliminary Results of Baseline Screening, Chest;124;614-621. Kathryn L. Taylor,Lisa Sanderson Cox,Nicole Zincke, Larina Mehta, Colleen McGuire, Edward Gelmann, 2006, Lung cancer screening as a teachable moment for smoking cessation, Lung Cancer (2007) 56, 125—134. Kavita Garg, Robert L. Keith,Tim Byers, Karen Kelly,Anne L. Kerzner, David A. Lynch, York E. Miller.2002, Randomized Controlled Trial with Low-Dose Spiral CT for Lung Cancer Screening: Feasibility Study and Preliminary Results, Radiology; 225:506 –510 Maurizio Infante, Fabio Romano Lutman, Silvio Cavuto,Giorgio Brambilla, Giuseppe Chiesa, Eliseo Passera, Enzo Angeli, Maurizio Chiarenza, Giuseppe Aranzulla, Umberto Cariboni, Marco Alloisio, Matteo Incarbone, Alberto Testori, Anna Destro,Federico Cappuzzo, Massimo Roncalli, Armando Santoro, Gianluigi Ravasi, 2007, Lung cancer screening with spiral CT Baseline results of the randomized DANTE trial, Lung Cancer (2008) 59, 355—363. National Lung Screening Trial Research Team, 2010, Baseline Characteristics of Participants in the Randomized National Lung Screening Trial, JNCI : Articles 1771,Vol. 102, Issue 23. National Lung Screening Trial Research Team, 2010, The National Lung Screening Trial:Overview and Study Design, Radiology: Volume 258: Number 1—January 2011. 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Powe, 2003, Lung Cancer Screening With Helical Computed Tomography in Older Adult Smokers -A Decision and Cost effectiveness Analysis, JAMA.;289:313-322. Pasic A, Postmus PE, Sutedja TG, 2004, What is early lung cancerA review of the literature. Lung Cancer ;45:267–77. R Ghosal, P Kloer, K E Lewis,2009, A review of novel biological tools used in screening for the early detection of lung cancer, Postgrad Med J ;85:358–363. Ravi J. Menezes, Heidi C. Roberts , Narinder S. Paul, Maureen McGregor, Tae Bong Chung, Demetris Patsios, GordonWeisbrod, Stephen Herman, Andre Pereira, Alexander McGregor, Zhi Dong, Igor Sitartchouk, Scott Boerner, Ming-Sound Tsao, Shaf Keshavjee, Frances A. Shepherd, 2010, Lung cancer screening using low-dose computed tomography in at-risk individuals: The Toronto experience, Lung Cancer ;67, 177–183. Renee Manser, Andrew Dalton, Rob Carter, Graham Byrnes, Mark Elwood, Donald A. Campbell, 2004, Cost-effectiveness analysis of screening for lung cancer with low dose spiral CT (computed tomography) in the Australian setting, Lung Cancer ;48, 171—185. R. MacRedmond, P.M. Logan, M. Lee, D. Kenny, C. Foley and R.W. Costello, 2004,Screening for lung cancer using low dose CT scanning, Thorax ;59pp. 237–241. R MacRedmond, G McVey, M Lee, R W Costello, D Kenny, C Foley, P M Logan,2006, Screening for lung cancer using low dose CT scanning: results of 2 year follow up , Thorax;61:54–56. S Sone, F Li,Z-G Yang, T Honda, Y Maruyama, S Takashima, M Hasegawa, S Kawakami, K Kubo,M Haniuda and T Yamanda, 2001, Results of three-year mass screening programme for lung cancer using mobile low-dose spiral computed tomography scanner, British Journal of Cancer ;84(1), 25–32. Stefan Diederich, Priv Doz, Dag Wormanns, Michael Semik, Priv Doz, Michael Thomas, Priv Doz, Horst Lenzen, Nikolaus Roos, Walter Heindel,2002, Screening for Early Lung Cancer with Low-Dose Spiral CT: Prevalence in 817 Asymptomatic Smokers, RSNA, 2002. S.J. Swensen, J.R. Jett, J.A. Sloan, D.E. Midthun, T.E. Hartman and A.M. Sykes et al.,2002, Screening for lung cancer with low-dose spiral computed tomography, Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1;65 pp. 508–513. Stephen J. Swensen, James R. Jett, Thomas E. Hartman,David E. Midthun, Jeff A. Sloan, Anne-Marie Sykes, Gregory L. Aughenbaugh ,Medy A. Clemens,2003, Lung Cancer Screening with CT: Mayo Clinic Experience, Radiology; 226:756 –761. Stephen J. Swensen, James R. Jett,Thomas E. Hartman, David E. Midthun, Sumithra J. Mandrekar, Shauna L. Hillman, Anne-Marie Sykes, Gregory L. Aughenbaugh,Aaron O. Bungum, Katie L. Allen,2005, CT Screening for Lung Cancer: Five-year Prospective Experience, Radiology ;235:259–265. S. Novello, C. Fava, P. Borasio, L. Dogliotti, G. Cortese, B. Crida, G. Selvaggi, P. Lausi, M. P. Brizzi, P. Sperone, L. Cardinale, F. Ferraris, F. Perotto, A. Priola, G. V. Scagliotti, 2005, Three-year ?ndings of an early lung cancer detection feasibility study with low-dose spiral computed tomography in heavy smokers, Annals of Oncology 16: 1662–1666. Semin Chong, Kyung Soo Lee, Myung Jin Chung, Tae Sung Kim, Hojoong Kim*, O Jung Kwon*,Yoon-Ho Choi, Chong H. Rhee, 2005, Lung Cancer Screening with Low-Dose Helical CT in Korea: Experiences at the Samsung Medical Center, J Korean Med Sci; 20: 402-8. Thierry Blanchon, Jeanne-Marie Br?echot, Philippe A. Grenier, Gilbert R. Ferretti , Etienne Lemari?e, Bernard Milleron, Dominique Chagu?e, Franc?ois Laurent, Yves Martinet,Catherine Beigelman-Aubry, Franc?ois Blanchon, Marie-Pierre Revel,Sylvie Friard, Martine R?emy-Jardin, Manuela Vasile , Nicola Santelmo,Alain Lecalier, Patricia Lef?ebure, Denis Moro-Sibilot, Jean-Luc Breton, Marie-France Carette, Christian Brambilla, Franc?ois Fournel, Alexia Kieffer , Guy Frija, Antoine Flahault, 2007, Baseline results of the Depiscan study: A French randomized pilot trial of lung cancer screening comparing low dose CT scan (LDCT) and chest X-ray (CXR), Lung Cancer ;58, 50—58. Tomotaka Sobue, Noriyuki Moriyama, Masahiro Kaneko, Masahiko Kusumoto, Toshiaki Kobayashi, Ryosuke Tsuchiya, Ryutaro Kakinuma, Hironobu Ohmatsu, Kanji Nagai, Hiroyuki Nishiyama, Eisuke Matsui, and Kenji Eguchi, 2002, Screening for Lung Cancer With Low-Dose Helical Computed Tomography: Anti-Lung Cancer Association Project, J Clin Oncol 20:911-920. Takeshi Nawa, Tohru Nakagawa, Suzushi Kusano, Yoshimichi Kawasaki, Youichi Sugawara, Hajime Nakata,2002, Lung Cancer Screening Using LowDose Spiral CT* Results of Baseline and 1-Year Follow-up Studies, Chest 2002;122;15-20. Thomas N. Chirikos, Todd Hazelton, Melvin Tockman, Robert Clark, 2002, Screening for Lung Cancer With CT*- A Preliminary Cost-effectiveness Analysis, Chest;121;1507-1514. Ugo Pastorino,Massimo Bellomi,Claudio Landoni, Elvio De Fiari, Patrizia Arnaldi, Maria Picchio, Giuseppe Pelosi, Peter Boyle,Ferruccio Fazio, 2003, Early Lung-Cancer detection with spiral CT and Positron emission tomographyin heavy smokers : 2year results, Lancet :362:593-97. UK Clinical Research Network : Portfolio Database (UKCRN), 2011, Lung-SEARCH study , accessed on 20/4/11 from S. Diederich , M Thomas , M Semik , H Lenzen ,N Roos , A Weber , W Heindel ,D Wormanns ,2004, Screening for early lung cancer with low-dose spiral computed tomography: results of annual follow-up examinations in asymptomatic smokers [abstract], Eur Radiology;.(4):691-702. http://pfsearch.ukcrn.org.uk/StudyDetail.aspx?TopicID=1StudyID=2225. UK Clinical Research Network: Portfolio Database (UKCRN), 2011,The MEDLUNG study, accessed on 20/4/11 from http://public.ukcrn.org.uk/search/StudyDetail.aspx?StudyID=4682 How to cite Screening Lung Cancer: Literature Review, Essay examples

Production and Wholesale of Product in Organization

Question: Describe about the Production and Wholesale of Product in Organization. Answer: Background of challenge: Davids Timber is an Australian timber producer and wholesaler organization that was found by David and Maurice Efron in 1989. It specialises in timber products and has a comprehensive product range including products like fencing, landscape, premium sawn and pallet grade products. The company is currently the largest wholesale supplier of Timber in Victoria (Davids Timber, 2013). Major market for the company includes sawmills in Australia and New Zealand. The producer was awarded with Alex Popes cu Award for Excellence and Best Outdoor Timber Supplier of the year by Timber Merchant Association (Davids Timber, 2013). The Challenge The major challenge faced by the organization today is the increased safety issues like physical hazards such as injuries and accidents and health hazards on workers. Physical Hazards: Working in sawmill is one of the dangerous occupation in the country. Gigantic weights and falling, rolling or sliding logs and machinery equipment also can be very hazardous, especially when workers use machines without proper training or safeguards. Injuries like laceration, cut of body part, burns and blindness could occur whilst working in a timber industry (United States Department of Labour, 2016). A worker suffered injury due to saw blade at mill before few years. The company was fined and ordered to reparation after a worker had amputated his thumb and an index finger. Worker had to undergo number of surgeries to fix the finger but he ultimately lost it. (Work Safe, 2015). Major causes of such physical hazards were found as follows: Machinery: Workers faced fatal injuries like fingers cut when they came in contact with the moving machines having saw blades. Manual handling: Staff suffers from back pain and musculoskeletal disorders resulting from lifting and handling of heavy wood materials, such as, Timber boards, pallets, heavy machines. Electrical: Employees often get exposed to electrical shock or burns because of faulty wires, plugs and other electrical equipments. Due to major electrical faults, some instances of fire could also occur that can cause burns or death by smoke inhalation. Slips and falls: Employee falling from heighted place or tripping over dangerous objects have made them suffer from injuries like laceration, cut, bruising or fracture. Moving Vehicles: There are moving vehicles used in the production unit which poses a risk on employees and others visiting factory of being run over by moving vehicles (Health and safety executive, 2016). Health Hazards Various health-related problems that would be caused the employees of the organization were identified as follows: Harmful Chemicals: The timber that is brought to the production unit has to be dried such that moisture can be removed for which a treatment process is used which involves preservative chemicals that can be harmful to the health of workers (Davids Timber, 2013). Saw Dust: Saw dust is another cause of concern for health of workers. Workers who are allergic to dust may have breathing problems and risk of lung diseases like asthma, hardwood dust may cause cancer working longer time in wood industry. Noise: The noise produced in the factory from the machines is also causing havoc for workers who may suffer from temporary or permanent hearing loss due to noisy and constant machinery noise at work place (Department of Labour, 2005). Five Solutions: There is a need to take appropriate steps to ensure the safety at the working site is enhanced for workers. Work Safe 2015 NZ can be taken as a base to identify some solutions to the challenges discussed here. Moreover, form the study of operations of the organization, some more solutions can be recommended. The five solutions that are determined to solve the work place hazard issue of the timber production organization include: Use of protective equipments: Restricting visitors and untrained works from entering machine areas: Use of low noise tooling: Replacement of hazardous material with safer materials: Reduction of manual handling at work: The probable solutions are: Prevention of physical and health hazards Advanced technology for automation Materials and equipments replacement The possible solutions are: Prevention of physical and health hazards by procuring more protective equipments Acquiring more advanced technological solutions to reduce man handling of materials Replacement of hazardous materials and noise causing tools with less hazard causing materials and equipments Key Probable Protective Equipments: This would be the easiest and most cost effective thing to do for the organization as the protective equipments used for every manufacturing or production unit requirements are already available. The organization would only need to identify the right equipment, identify suppliers to source from and make a plan for acquiring most important equipments while ensuring that the financial restrictions are not much violated. However, with current financial restrictions, the company may not be able to purchase new protective equipment and thus, there is a needed that the top management realizes the importance of using them and relax the financial restrictions for the purchase of protective equipments. The benefits would later be reflected when there would be fewer injuries and health hazards leading to reduction in man hours due to absence of injured worker, reduction in costs associated with medications or hospitalization related expenses incurred on workers and reduc tion in attrition rate of employees thereby saving the costs of hiring in the long run. SWOT Analysis of education/competency Strength Davids Timber is the largest outdoor wholesaler for Timber products in Victoria It provides a large range of products The organization has a large production unit spread over 6 acres which accommodates all its employees in the same place such that it is easier to communicate with workers, bring coordination and enforce safety policies. A base level training about the work safety is provided to every employee working in the organization Weaknesses: Most of the methods used in the company for material handling are manual The company does not make use of new or advanced technologies for its operations There is a financial restriction on the amount of safety equipments that can be purchased and thus, they may not be sufficient Opportunities Expanding timber supply globally Recruit more number of employee to increase the production Opportunity to win more awards internationally for quality services Threats Increasing safety issues can threaten workers and this can lead to employee attrition as well as discourage new employees from joining. Deforestation has resulted from increasing demand of timber material which can disturb the environmental balance in the region Because of the lack of use of safety procedures and safety material, health of employees working in the organization can become a major concern. References Guide to Health and Safety in The Timber Processing Company. (2005, May). Department of Labour.

Murder Essay free essay sample

In this essay I will be criticising the law on murder including voluntary manslaughter and suggesting how it can be unsatisfactory as it can be quite confusing for the people who need to be applying the sentence for example the jury. Murder is a common law offence which means the law is made due to the cases however, it should be written down which means it would then be a statute law, which was suggested by Lord Coke in the 15th Century. The government have also acknowledged the fat that the law of murder needs to become a statute law, they have also asked the law commissions to research this area so that they can produce a report on the possible reforms. The major criticism is regarding the mandatory life sentence, this is criticised by both law professionals and the law commissions. It is hard for a judge to discriminate between different types of killings but will have the same sentence no matter if it’s an act of mercy killings when your partner is suffering an illness where there’s no hope that they will survive and the partner decides to switch the machine off, however they will receive the same punishment as say the Yorkshire ripper (Sutcliffe). We will write a custom essay sample on Murder Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page A trial judge cannot even tell the difference between the different kinds of murder when imposing the sentence. Judges should be allowed to be given more authority when depending on the circumstances on the case for them to think of an appropriate sentence. A famous legal quote quoted by Hogan, which said â€Å"the sentence must be proportionate to the offence – court can achieve justice between one offender and another. † This was quoted in the 1980s it basically means is the worse the crime the worse the sentence which should be issued, many people still believe that this is how the law should be. Hogan wanted each case to be looked at separately and not compared which suggests that case law would then be demolished. In loss of control sexual infidalilty should not be included when looking at loss of control, this is absurd as the jealousy and anger which comes from sexual infidaility would technically cause loss of control, but this factor is told to be ignored. A big problem regarding the law of murder is the actus reus. The actus reus of murder is â€Å"the unlawful killing of a reasonable person in being† now looking at this a reasonable being is classed as a human being, however this does not include a foetus, even though the Abortion Act 1965 clearly states that a foetus is a human being at 28 weeks. This is very unclear as the laws contradict themselves and can be confusing for the acting jury and judges that are present as they will get to choose whether they feel that it is just or not, which means that the outcome on similar cases can possibly have totally different outcomes as it would be opinionated. For the laws which contradict each other for example the law on killing a foetus should definitely be relooked and reconsidered as this can cause (and/or may already do) confusion in the courts room as one law is saying one thing and the other law is going against that. People such as the jury who are not lay people may only understand bits of the law or not at all which can then result in a wrong verdict being given. The last criticism I will be looking at the concerns raised when looking at intention and oblique intention it is known to be â€Å"the most basic concept of criminal law which remains so unclear† this is because of the introduction of the mens rea â€Å"malice aforethought express or implied† which is very difficult for the jury to understand. Even the judges are unclear as they tend to adjust it from one case to another. Now looking at all the criticisms we see that there is a lot that can be done to improve the law regarding murder and it has been suggested that murder should be divided into two separate offences; First degree murder – which would be the intention to kill and would carry out the life sentence. And Second degree murder – which would be the intention to cause Grievous Bodily Harm (GBH) knowing that death, would eventually occur. This would then reform the problem that occurs with the mandatory life sentence being applicable to every murder sentence no matter how much gruesome or truthful it may be. The new law has proposed a new defence to law of Diminished Responsibility which they say should be satisfactory. The questions that arouse are not what the law commissions intended to say. The terms that are used in some of the elements in diminished responsibility are said that they should no longer be needed as the definition says it all. Issues relating mercy killings have still not yet been discussed, the law commissions’ wishes to raise this issue but the government have ignored the idea for this to be implemented. This would be help the people who are in desperate need to be taken out of all the suffering and hurt they are going through. Loss of control is also a new law which is an updated version of the defence that used to be available to murder which was Provocation. It says that loss of control includes the objective test which is actually meant to be subjective test which means that it is not greatly improved.

The Death Penalty in the US Criminal Justice System

The Death Penalty in the US Criminal Justice System Introduction The death penalty has been a largely debated form of punishment in the U.S. since its inception. The law supporting this unkind and unfair sentence was thus, put under scrutiny and consequently several death sentences were either overturned or could only be carried out on proportionate grounds by the supreme courts heralding a new era in the criminal justice system of the US.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Death Penalty in the US Criminal Justice System specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The legal arguments for this decision made by the higher courts were cited in line with the 8th amendment that called for the exclusive considerations on several factors that mainly touched on racial disparities, age of a convict, proper evidence that can incriminate the accused persons, respective human rights action plans against such people, satisfactory judgment delivered either by unanimous decision or a majority of votes by the judges and so on (Burns 1). Age The Supreme Court made a decision based on the 8th amendment to relook into criminal cases viewed as cruel or unusual, and instead provided an alternative favorable form of punishment. Most death sentences were slashed down to life imprisonment, leaving only deserved cases as death sentences. For instance, some states were forced to repackage their judicial laws after realizing that the judgment commonly delivered never materialized particularly when the cases involved were referred back to the supreme courts, which in turn, after careful hearing, overturned the rulings in favor of the accused. This occurred in cases that were considered to lack the 8th amendment thresholds for the death penalty. These circumstances made several states to re of such ruling involving a minor was a criminal case for Christopher Simmons who was sentenced to death but later overruled; Case, Roper v Simmons. Another example of such case in which the age of a convict was contested involved a 15 year old at the time of committing the crime. William Thompson was sentenced to death after being convicted of murder. Due to this, the Supreme Court overturned the decision of an Oklahoma court by explaining that the execution of the minor violated the eighth amendment statute. The case here is, Thompson v. Oklahoma. Racial disparities Another main issue surrounding the death penalty is the racial inequality that has been historically characteristic with handing of the penalty in the U.S. For instance, consider a case involving an African American who was convicted of two counts of robbery plus one count of murder. After convictions in county courts and subsequently condemned to death, his plea was heard whereby the Supreme Court ruling overturned the death penalty imposed. The final ruling stated that the majority should not dictate matters of humanity since it is unconstitutional. For example, it was viewed that those accused of killing whit e people could easily be handed the death sentence compared to murderers for black persons. After much consideration and scrutiny of the penalty, the courts offered a platform for the voiceless like the accused person in question.i.e case, McCleskey v kemp. Mental state of the convict Mental instability in most people is believed to have unnatural rage subconscious to a person’s mind. It is for this reason that informed the Supreme Court to offer a reprieve on death penalty for mentally retarded persons who commit a criminal offence. As a result of this, the death sentence was found to be unconstitutionally excessive thereby restricting the state’s power to deliver death penalty as a form of punishment on similar cases under the same state of mind. For instance, Daryl Atkins was convicted of murder even though his IQ score was 59 hence; the Supreme Court reversed the earlier ruling which did not evaluate his condition as that of mild mental condition; Case, Atkins v. V irginia (Jacobs 1). Proper evidence of aggravating circumstances Proper reasons were to be evaluated so as to be used against a convict. For instance, in order to incriminate a person, the Supreme Court made a decision to provide a clear distinction on where imposition of death can be allowed. It was unanimously passed that there could be circumstances when the evidence produced could exempt on the death penalty for non-murder offenses like rape except for crimes comparable to treason.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Death Penalty in the US Criminal Justice System specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This was seen during the trial for Antonym Coker who escaped from custody but got re-arrested and condemned to death penalty for rape. The Supreme Court in turn overturned the first sentence arguing that it was too harsh on the ground that most rape cases may not involve murder. Another similar case in which a sentence by the lower court was annulled by that of the Supreme Court took place in Lousiana.The criminal case involved Patrick Kennedy accused of raping his 8 year old step daughter. The Supreme Court then scrutinized his case after a successful appeal against a capital punishment handed earlier. The argument of the higher court then concluded that imposing the death penalty against the convict was against the 8th amendment and therefore unconstitutional because the crime neither resulted nor was intended to terminate the innocent life of his victim (Radelet Akers 1). Therefore, the ruling decided that the accused should instead be sent to life imprisonment; Case, Kennedy v. Louisiana. Method of delivering the death sentence In cases where the method used to administer the death penalty is considered cruel and painful, the Supreme Court could then deliberate on a particular ruling by a junior state court. This was observed during the sentencing of Ralph Baze who was convicted for murder an d sure enough condemned to death by a Kentucky state court by lethal injection and instead appealed against the ruling, only for the sentence to be re-affirmed by the Supreme Court since the method for its application was considered safe after all. The same scenario was also witnessed during the trial of Jimmy L. Glass who was sentenced to death according to the legal argument of Louisiana court by electrocution. Through his lawyers, he argued that the application and the intensity when passing the death sentence through electrocution can cause serious injuries and pain and therefore do not meet the humane standards as required by the constitution (White 1). The final judgment by the Supreme Court thus dismissed the petition thereby allowing the lower court’s ruling to go ahead; Case, Jimmy L. Glass v.Lousiana. Improper judgment Pending cases provided relevant provisions to re-appeal the death sentence if the trial is perceived to be as a result of discretion of a judge deter mining the outcome of a case almost single handedly. Take for example, the trial of Timothy Ring, a convict of first degree murder and sentenced to life imprisonment only for a state judge to step-up the penalty to another sentence by death. Consequently though, the Supreme Court reversed the decision citing that statutory maximum sentence should be put before a jury panel since the judge was found to have acted improperly without a sitting legal bench who could have delivered a unanimous decision; Case, Ring v. Arizona.Advertising Looking for essay on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Special procedure for capital penalty It was realized that rulings could impose the death penalty by ignoring the nature or circumstance preceding a crime. Therefore, it was required that a jury must be able to cite a possible statutory aggravating legal requirement before delivering any formal penalty by death. Such a case where the judgment was allowed to stand as it was involved Troy Leon who was convicted for robbery and murder for which he was handed over death sentence (Head 1). On challenging his trial, the Supreme Court rejected his plea and instead maintained the earlier verdict by dismissing the robbery factor since the statutory system was not found to violate the constitutional statutes; Case, Gregg v. Georgia. The legislative judgments of some states Several courts in some states decided to respond to the modification of the death penalty especially for murder committed in relation to a felony. Such states that rejected the death penalty arising from committing a felony therefore illegalized the practice hence the Supreme Court found it as an appropriate way by providing more options for fair trial. This was arrived at after establishing the fact that, the death penalty usually imposed may be too harsh for a convict who did not participate in a murder or intended to carry out such heinous act. A case of study featured Enmund in which the death penalty was outlawed when determining the ultimate ruling by the supreme judges since they decided that it could not be imposed under circumstances of felony; Case, Enmund v. Florida. Contrary to the above case where a reprieve was provided by the Supreme Court, in Tison’s case, several state supreme courts amended their interpretation of the death penalty during such a case involving a felony by allowing capital punishment to take precedence in such future cases (White 1). This particular case was determined by analyzing noticeable circumstances of felony during the murder. The death penalty verdict was thus delivered since inquiries revealed passion and recklessness; Case, Tison v. Arizona. Conclusion From the above discussion, it is apparent that the suitability of imposing a death is questionable. From a number of precedents set on the death penalty, it is apparent that giving a life imprisonment instead of a death penalty will be more humane than a death penalty in permissible situations. All in all, a death penalty should be avoided as much as possible. Burns, Kari. â€Å"Punishment: Death penalty†. 2011. Web. Head, Tom. â€Å"The Eighth Amendment†. 2011-May 6. Web. Jacobs, Nancy. â€Å"Death Penalty Essay†. 2011. Web. Radelet, M Akers, R. Deterrence and the Death Penalty? The Views of the Experts, (1995) White, Debora. â€Å"Pros and cons of the death penalty†. 2011. Web.

12 Hour Shifts in Nursing

7 October 2011 Effects on Nurses Working Long Hours Patients in a hospital and/or healthcare facilities have to be cared for all day and all night, everyday of the week by nurses. The usual way to fulfill this need is to divide up the day into three 8-hour shifts. Different shifts have been put into place to help improve nurse satisfaction, decrease the nursing shortage and save the hospital money. The 24-hour day is made up of two 12-hour shifts; 12 hours in the day and 12 hours at night. There has been quite an ongoing debate over the years regarding this issue of nurses working over 8 hours in a single day. Many people, such as hospital nursing administrators, have reason to believe that working long hour shifts causes more errors in the workplace due to fatigue and irregular sleep schedules. Along with these reasons and other beliefs, 12-hour shifts in nursing should be revoked. The risks outweigh the benefits for extended hour shifts in hospitals and/or healthcare facilities, for both the patients and nurses. Nurses who work 12 or more hours in a single shift put at risk the health of themselves along with the health of the patients who they are treating. Working extended shifts causes fatigue, stress and lack of productivity. Errors are most common in nurses who are fatigued from working long and grueling hours. It is estimated 1. 3 million health care errors occur each year and of those errors 48,000 to 98,000 result in patient deaths. Many of these errors lead to malpractice suits and thousands of dollars lost (Keller, 497). This proves that working long hours in a health care environment will make nurses more prone to making error that may lead to patient death. Patient death is what the hospital and faculty members are trying to avoid, revoking long hour shifts seems like a proper way to start. As for the health of the nurse, nurses who work long hours are affecting their health in many ways. Some health problems that may occur in nurses are sleep problems, listlessness, and unable to think clearly. According to The American Heart Association, shift workers are inclined to drink more caffeinated beverages such as, coffee and energy drinks, smoke, and exercise less often. Along with these problems, working shifts and extended hours interfere with the body’s natural circadian rhythm, especially if working night shift. Human beings are designed to work during the daylight, not at night. â€Å"Symptoms of fatigue can include muscle weakness, lethargy, inability to think clearly or concentrate, listlessness, decreased cognitive function, anxiety, and exhaustion† (Keller, 499). This would not be acceptable for the high demands of nursing. Nurses need to be able to think clearly and stay sharp to make flash decisions incase the patients health rapidly decreases. If they are tired, they may lose this capability. Nurses also have to be able to work in high-pressure situations. If anxiety were a symptom of fatigue, this would jeopardize both the nurses and the patients. The nurse may lose her job for working while fatigued, and the patient may lose their life for not having proper care. Todays nurses would most likely oppose this argument. Most of todays nurses work long 12-hour shifts and favor them than five eight-hour shifts. They prefer working three 12-hour shifts, and then having four days off in a week. Nurses who work this shift can take a couple vacation days or sick days and be off for weeks at a time. They believe that working these long hour shifts do not affect their ability to care for patients, because they can drink coffee or soda and can take a nap on their lunch breaks. This argument may seem plausible, but reality is that these are only temporary fixes and may feel even more exhausted than before. In addition, during the four days they have off, they may feel weak and dazed so they will not be able to work a second part-time job if wanted or be with their loved-ones. After working that many hours in such a short period of time, they would need those four days off to compensate for the hard work they just endured. Health care administrators argue that having only two shifts a day (day and night) will help improve patient care because there would only be two nurses who would take care of a patient during a 24-hour shift. But still, it takes more hired nurses to fill a weeks schedule to accommodate each 12 hour shift is covered because a nurse can only work so many hours in a week. Annette Richardson claims that nurses who work extended hour shifts will be less productive during the last 2 to 3 hours of their shift. Signs of nurses being unproductive are; if he/she is taking a longer time to be with a patient than necessary, not completing patient charts and not being thorough on reports (Carson, 830). Nursing administration is there to help make patients and nurses happy and healthy. Health care administration wants the most work productivity as possible, and with having the last 3 hours of a nurses shift being unproductive will diminish that goal. Studies have shown that the most productive work schedule is working an eight-hour shift because it has the least number of errors due to workers fatigue and exhaustion. Nurses who also work long hour shifts may experience work ‘burnout’. A Burnout is a form of chronic stress related to ones job. Burnout occur most frequently in nurses who work long hours in high stress areas, such as critical care, oncology, or burn units. Symptoms of burnouts include fatigue, frequent colds, headaches, and insomnia. Mental symptoms may include decreased ability to solve problems and unwillingness to face problems and change. Nurses who suffer from burnout may quit their job or change jobs outside of the nursing profession. This causes shortages, which is currently a big issue in todays world. Not enough people are interested in the nursing career because of the high burnout rate. Linda Wilson was burning out because she worked the 3pm to 11pm shift in the critical care unit. The hospital was understaffed and had a lot of overtime. She barely got five hours a sleep a night (Ellis, 599). This proves that working too many extended hours a week with not enough sleep will cause burnout that leads to lost jobs. Lost jobs makes the shortage of nurses even higher and affecting patient care by not having enough nurses necessary to provide proper care and support to their patient during their stay. Overall, long hour shifts in nursing may have its pluses such as, a four-day weekend to be home with their loved-ones, but it also has its negative effects. Extended shifts may causes nurses to make errors while working from a lack of sleep and fatigue. This may end up in patient death or malpractice, which is the opposite of what nurses, and administrators are there to do. 12-hour days will eventually cause harm to him/herself because our bodies are not meant to work long and grueling hours because fatigue disrupts their ability to think clearly and quickly and may cause stress. With all of these going against them, they might get burned out and decide to quit or change jobs. An abundance of burnouts will create a larger nursing shortage than there already is, making the whole situation worse. I believe working 8-hours a day with three total shifts to make up a 24 hour day is the best way for both the nurses and the patients sake. It will reduce the amount of errors made do to fatigue and it will increase productivity in the workplace because nurses would not be affected by exhaustion. Works Cited

Strategic management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Strategic management - Essay Example n order for JetBlue Company to grow, the company should put new emphasis on the grand strategy for growth, operational excellence, and customer intimacy at the corporate level. It should also engage generic strategies of differentiation and overall low cost leadership at the functional level. Mainly, the strategy should include offering an amazing quality product and service that should be summarized under JetBlue experience, network expansion, low fares, and quest for low operating expenses and should invest in new and economical planes. JetBlue Company puts in place five core values to replace the formal mission statement. These values are safety, care, fun, integrity, and passion. The five values are more significant in that they are printed on every paper that JetBlue company issues. These values also provide a framework for the company’s culture. Adams insists that once a company’s values are framed, the company’s culture follows. The company looks forward to enhance the JetBlue experience so that it can differentiate itself from the competition from other companies with similar interests. For the JetBlue Company to continue to grow, it needs to formulate a new vision and mission statements. This is if the company is to remain true to being a low-cost carrier that endeavors to deliver on-time service with the most competitive airfares in the industry. It is the duty of any company to form a strategic management once it formulates a mission statement. This statement allows the firm to realize its potential while having minded what it wants to avoid as it grows successfully. JetBlue Company’s mission has been to be renowned low cost-carrier and the company has been reluctant to change its vision and mission statement. For JetBlue Company to have a clear direction of where it is headed, the company should put together more than a ten-word sentence in order to convey the firm’s mission. The values should be differentiated by making five core

Charter Schools Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Charter Schools - Essay Example The different between charter schools and other public schools is that families choose them for their children because they have desired qualities and environment that must exhibit. Moreover, they operate on specific freedoms that are not in the other district public schools hence making them favorable and lenient to the children Chance, L. M. S. A. A., & Lewis, W. (2013) these schools must demonstrate exquisite performance in matters relating to academics prowess, transparent management of finances and effective organizational stability. However, failure for a charter school to meet the organizational may lead to the closure of such school. Chance & Lewis (2013) Affirms that the underrepresented students in charter schools tend to succeed in education and extracurricular activities compared to other students in the district schools. The essay seeks to illustrate why the underrepresented students perform better compared to others in the district schools. First, the general model of school provides an enabling atmosphere where all people can learn and integrate the relevant skills learned in the realm of academics. CREDO study indicates success of these students emanates from school quality features such as teacher quality, lengths of day among other factors that concentrate on the non-low-income, non-disabled females in the charter schools (Mayr, 2008). The school exhibits controllable effects such as peer group, physical education that contribute heavily towards making an individual full member of the community. In other words, the schools have an adequate atmosphere that will provide an avenue for students to succeed by the end of the day. The students have hardworking spirit. Coupling the handwork and effort from students makes it possible for students to excel and eventually perform distinctively from other students in the society. The administration has set principles in terms creating and maintaining motivation amongst students. Awards and

We Can Never Can Tell Essay Example for Free

We Can Never Can Tell Essay It’s funny how things always turn out different than how we expect or want them to. It becomes funny eventually but for the most part, it’s hard. In some cases, painful at first. I am always caught saying â€Å"we can never can tell†. Sometimes, it’s just my excuse and sometimes, I just like saying it because it sounds nice but there is truth to it. Whoever knows what will happen next? Whatever is â€Å"next† – the next time, next person, next tragedy, next tear, next smile. We can plan, predict, speculate, estimate†¦ but truth is, we really can never can tell. Otherwise, where’s the fun in that?†¦ is what they say. Honestly though, don’t you sometimes wish to know what’s next for you in life? Much more, where are all of these life struggles and adventures leading us to? Where am I going to end up? With who? It’s not like you want to impatiently fast-forward to the end of your life but you just want to know if in the end of all these crisis and drama, everything is going to be alfckingright just like what they always tell you when you’re shitfckin depressed. You just want to know if having to struggle today means having a bright future tomorrow or will it be a recurring struggle, or worse, an endless pit of struggle. It’s not fair nor is it right to question life and its purpose but wouldn’t that be nice? A little bit of assurance would be nice. Lucky are those who have their future stable and planned out perfectly fine even before they were born. Trust fund babies, children or relatives of influential people, political dynasties, celebrity children, children of multimillionaires, even those who were born with beautiful genes, because that actually makes their lives easier (feel free to disagree). ***Please don’t refer or send me a copy of The Purpose Driven Life because somebody already did, thank you. On a semi-irrelevant note (depending on how you comprehend it), I have learned that the lack of choices makes you a better person or to put it more rationally, makes you better at what you do. Giving yourself choices is tempting yourself to easily quit one decision and move on to the other instead of making things work; whereas when you’re stuck with only one, you have no other choice but to move forward, make it last, make it work, therefore you strive to be better. Having choices opens up opportunities for comparison, and comparison never leads to contentment and happiness, from what I know. Having a job while knowing that there are still hundreds of available other jobs will make it hard for you to value and stay in your current job (pardon my confusing sentence). You will always wonder what the others has to offer and how you could be wasting your time doing what you think you don’t deserve, instead of working hard to succeed in it and make things better. Having a girlfriend while knowing that there are still hundreds of available other girls who could be sexier and more attractive than her will make it hard for you to be faithful and contented. Especially when you’re fully aware that you’re a good-looking sonuvabitch who thinks you can have any girl you want. You will always wonder if there is someone or something better for you hence disregarding the notion that you may actually have in your hands the best choice. Am I right or am I right? Choices are fallbacks. It’s easy to quit, to let go, to turn around, to give up, to not try hard, when you know you have a fallback that conveniently catches you anytime, everytime. Contentment is inversely proportional to our number of choices (and I realized that just now). The more choices, the harder for us to be contented†¦ and happy. Feel free to disagree.

Graduation Speech :: Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

Tonight marks the end of an era. Years of books, plays, dances and sports have all led to this gratifying moment. As we, the graduation class of 2006, sit here watching as the last of our high school careers fade into twilight and nervously awaiting what new adventure tomorrow will bring, it is important that we share a moment to reflect and appreciate the enormity of our fine accomplishment. For tonight's graduation marks not only our passage from the halls of Bears High School, but is also a declaration of our commitment and effort. This last year has been a tragic one for American high schools. With incidents such as the mindless shootings at Columbine, it often seems as though todays' youth are no longer capable of positively participating in and shaping the world. Media hype and the neat label of Generation X has branded us as incapable of achieving. We should be lazy and incompetent. Tonight we sit here as proof of hope for the future. We are the businessmen, the teachers and the parents of tomorrow. By our own dedication to our success in high school having qualified us to lead the future, tonight we rise above and shed those labels. For tonight's graduation is the culmination of our commitment, from efforts from that first day of kindergarten to now as we await the satisfaction of diplomas in our hands. While at times it may have been easy to have been drawn into the negative aspects of school, we have chosen to pursue and to accomplish. Worthy of pride, this is why I congratulate you. With the support of our parents, our teachers and our friends we made it to this day and to the beginning of a new stage of our lives. Where we go from here and what new frontiers we are meant to discover may remain unseen, but as we step out those doors tonight and stare into the first lights of what is to come and what is to be, always remember tonight's victory.

Fire Detection Using Surveillance Cameras Environmental Sciences Essay

With the increasing figure of surveillance cameras being installed in everyplace, there is a greater demand for computing machine vision applications for sensing of unnatural events. Fire sensing utilizing surveillance cameras has become an of import country of research. Most current fire dismay systems are based on infrared detectors, optical detectors, or ion detectors that depend on certain features of fire, such as fume, heat, or radiation. However, these traditional fire dismay systems are non alerted until the atoms really reach the detectors, and they are normally unable to supply any extra information, such as the location and size of the fire and the grade of combustion. In contrast, vision sensor-based fire sensing systems offer several advantages. First, the equipment cost is lower, as such systems are based on CCD ( Charge Coupled Device ) cameras, which have already been installed in many public topographic points for surveillance intents. Second, the response clip for fire and fume sensing is faster because the camera does non necessitate to wait for the fume or heat to spread. Third, because the camera besides functions as a volume detector, as distinguishable from traditional point detectors, it can supervise a big country, making a higher possibility of fire sensing at an early phase. Finally, in the instance of a false dismay, the system director can corroborate the being of a fire through the surveillance proctor without sing the location. The purpose of this undertaking is to observe fire in picture by analysing the frame-to-frame alterations of specific low-level characteristics depicting possible fire part. These characteristics are colour, country size, surface saltiness, boundary raggedness, and lopsidedness within estimated fire parts. Because of flickering and random features of fire, these characteristics are powerful discriminants. The bing system for fire sensing algorithms in picture chiefly focuses on the colour facet of fire and on the form form to analyse the sum of fire gesture, which leads to a faulty consequence. Uniting both the spatial and temporal features of fire and fume can take to a better consequence. Besides the bing method chiefly deals with inactive camera, which is non the instance in newscast pictures. Computer vision-based fire sensing algorithms are applied in closed-circuit telecasting surveillance scenarios with controlled background. It can be applied non merely to surveillance but besides to automatic picture categorization for retrieval of fire calamities in databases of newscast content. In the latter instance, there are big fluctuations in fire and background features depending on the picture case. Chapter 2 LITERATURE SURVEY Early sensing of fire is an of import jobs, hence there have been many methods proposed to work out this issue. Color, geometry, and gesture of fire part are all indispensable characteristics for efficient categorization of fire from non-fire parts. In general, in add-on to colour, a part that corresponds to fire can be captured in footings of the spacial construction defined by the boundary fluctuation within the part. The form of a fire part frequently keeps altering and exhibits a stochastic gesture, which depends on environing environmental factors such as the type of firing elements and air current. These factors form the utile characteristics for observing fire. Based on these factors several utile characteristics for observing fire are: colour, country size, surface saltiness, boundary raggedness and lopsidedness.2.1 ColorFire has really distinguishable colour features, and although empirical, it is the most powerful individual characteristic for happening fire in video sequen ces. Based on trials with several images in different declarations and scenarios, it is sensible to presume that by and large the colour of fires belongs to the red-yellow scope, as in the instance for hydrocarbon fires, which are the most common type of fires seen in nature. For the type of fires considered ( hydrocarbon fires ) , it is noticed that for a given fire pel, the value of ruddy channel is greater than the green channel, and the value of the green channel is greater than the value of bluish channel. Unique colour scope of fire can be estimated in RGB and HSI individually. Hardware by and large display or present colour via RGB. So a pel is associated with a three dimensional vector ( R, g, B ) . HSI ( Hue, Saturation and Intensity ) is the manner of show which follows that how human sees. Here hue represents the sensed colour like orange or purple. Saturation measures its dilution by white visible radiation. HSI extract strength information, while chromaticity and impregnation correspond to human perceptual experience. Fire pels have a colour that runs from ruddy to orange to yellow to about white. This graduated table indicates the energy of the fire, with the redder the fire, the less temperature and radiant heat it is let go ofing. Color cues may be the most of import property when acknowledging fires in fire sensing. A colour infinite is a agency of stipulating colourss, and they can be classified into three basic dividers: HVS ( human ocular system ) based colour infinites ( e.g. RGB ) , application-specific ( e.g. CMY, YCbCr ) , and CIE colour infinites ( e.g. CIELab ) . To observe fire pels, a method is proposed [ 2 ] utilizing the Red channel threshold, which is the major constituent in an RGB image of fire fires and impregnation values. The colour chance theoretical accounts are so generated utilizing a unimodal Gaussian distribution from sample images that contain dynamic fire scenes. Fire pels are so detected utilizing these RGB chance theoretical accounts. The Gaussian chance distribution can be estimated as follows: where Ii ( x, Y ) is the colour value for the ith colour channel R, g, B in an image, ?i the average value of Ii ( x, Y ) , and ?i the standard divergence of Ii ( x, Y ) . To simplify the calculation, the distributions of colour channels of each pel are assumed to be independent, and the joint chance denseness map of the R, g, B chance distribution is given by:2.2 Area SizeArea is an of import characteristic of fire, the fire country represented by the figure of fire pels will be consecutively increasing if the fire has an instable and developing fire. To place a fire ‘s growing, we can cipher the size fluctuations of fire country from two back-to-back images. If the consequence is more than a predefined threshold value, there is a likely fire ‘s growing. For the estimated fire pel country, because of the fire flickering, a alteration in the country size of the possible fire mask occurs from frame to border. Non-fire countries have a less random alteration in the country size. The normalized country alteration ?Ai for the ith frame is given by: where Ai corresponds to the country of the fire blobs stand foring the possible fire parts in the PFM. In instance a difficult determination regulation is used, fire is assumed if ?Ai & A ; gt ; ?A, where ?A is a determination threshold. One of the chief features of fire is a changeless alteration of form due to the air flow caused by air current or firing stuff. Thus, campaigner fire parts are ab initio detected utilizing a simple background minus theoretical account. This procedure is indispensable for bettering fire sensing public presentation and cut downing sensing clip. Assorted algorithms have been late proposed to divide foreground from background. First, traveling pels and parts are extracted from the image. They are determined by utilizing a background appraisal method [ 3 ] .In this method, a background image Bn+1 at clip instant N + 1 is recursively estimated from the image frame In and the background image Bn of the picture as follows:( ten, Y ) stationary( ten, Y ) travelingwhere In ( x, y ) represents a pel in the n-th picture frame In, and a is a parametric quantity between 0 and 1. Traveling pels are determined by deducting the current image from the background image. T is a threshold which is set harmonizing to the scene of the background.2.3 Surface CoarsenessUnlike other false-alarm parts, like a xanthous traffic mark, fire parts have a important sum of variableness in the pel values. Filter Bankss are often used in texture analysis when seeking to depict a given form. In the instance of fire, nevertheless, it is really difficult to depict its texture with any given theoretical account. The entropy observed in fire can change significantly in frequence response ( cyclicity is frequently non present ) and gradient angles, for illustration. The discrepancy is a well-known metric to bespeak the sum of saltiness in the pel values. Hence, we use the discrepancy of the blobs as a characteristic to assist extinguishing non-fire blobs in the Potential Fire Mask.2.4 LopsidednessThe lopsidedness measures the grade of dissymmetry of a distribution around its mean. It is zero when the distribution is symmetric, positive if the distribution form is more dis persed to the right and negative if it is more dispersed to the left. Fire parts have high pel values for the green and specially for the ruddy channel. Very frequently, we observe a impregnation in the ruddy channel, taking the histogram to the upper side of the scope. This causes the lopsidedness of this distribution to hold a high negative value. For this ground, we employ the lopsidedness as an utile characteristic to place fire parts.2.5 Boundary raggednessGiven a metameric fire part, we retrieve its boundary utilizing a classical Laplacian operator, and so it is convenient for us to recover its 8-connected boundary concatenation codification [ 8 ] . From the concatenation codification, we can easy cipher the margin L of the boundary. Based on the margin and the country of fire part, we calculate the rotundity as L2/S, which describes complexness of the form, i.e. more complex form has greater value. Roundness can assist to acquire rid of the inerratic bright topics in the earl y clip. Traveling pels and parts in the picture are determined by utilizing cagey border sensing for the old estimation of the background strength value at all pixel places. Accurate sensing of traveling parts is non every bit critical as in other object trailing and appraisal jobs. We are chiefly concerned with real-time sensing of traveling parts as an initial measure in the fire and fire sensing system. We choose to implement this suggested method because of its computational efficiency. A fire in gesture has a comparatively inactive general form ( determined by the form of firing stuffs ) and quickly altering local form in the unobstructed portion of the boundary line. The lower frequence constituents of fire part boundary are comparatively steady over clip, and the higher frequence constituents change in a stochastic manner. Consequently, we use a stochastic theoretical account to capture the characteristic random gesture of fire boundaries over clip.Chapter 3PROPOSED WorkThe fire sensing method that is proposed in this paper foremost extracts the characteristics of fire like colour, country size, surface saltiness, boundary raggedness and lopsidedness. In this paper a probabilistic attack for fire colour sensing is used. Using this attack a Potential Fire Mask ( PFM ) is created and based on this mask the remainder of the chara cteristics are extracted. All these characteristics are so taken together into a classifier which classifies the part as fire or non-fire part.3.1 Potential Fire Mask creative activityHarmonizing to most fire sensing documents presented in the literature and based on our ain experiments, we notice that fire has really distinguishable colour features. Based on trials with several images in different declarations and scenarios, it is sensible to presume that by and large the colour of fires belongs to the red-yellow scope. For the type of fires considered ( hydrocarbon fires ) , it is noticed that for a given fire pel, the value of ruddy channel is greater than the green channel, and the value of the green channel is greater than the value of bluish channel, as illustrated in Fig. 3.1. Fig.3.1. Histogram of a fire part inside the black square, for the ruddy, green, and bluish channels. Several extra features besides hold, which are discussed in the followers, where colour sensing metric is proposed. This sensing metric is used to bring forth the PFM, which will so be further analyzed with the other non-color fire characteristics. Let a fire pel at place ( m, N ) in an image be represented by degree Fahrenheit ( m, N ) , where degree Fahrenheit ( m, n ) = and francium, fG, and fB are the ruddy, green, and bluish channels representation of degree Fahrenheit, severally. Let, and stand for the sample norm of the pels in a fire image part, for the ruddy, green, and bluish channels, as shown in Fig. 1. Interpretation, , and as random variables, we employ a Gaussian theoretical account for these variables, such ~N ( , ~N and ~N. With these premises, allow us specify ( 3.1 ) ( 3.2 ) ( 3.3 ) Where post exchange ( x0 ) represents the rating of the chance denseness map ( PDF ) of a random variable ten at value x0. In this instance, represents the mean value in the ruddy channel of an ascertained set of pels. Fig. 3.2 illustrates that the maximal value for DCR is obtained when = . Fig.3.2. Graphical representation of the parametric quantities in ( 1 ) . Maximal assurance is obtained when = . can be interpreted as a normalized metric that indicates the chance that a given part represents fire harmonizing to the ruddy channel distribution. For illustration, if in ( 1 ) is really close to, is really near to 1 and we assume with chance that the ascertained part represents a fire part ( sing the ruddy channel merely ) . To widen this to the three colour channels, in the followers we employ, , and as given in Eqn ( 3.4 ) . Using the definitions ( 1 ) – ( 3 ) , the proposed sensing metric to bespeak whether the ascertained part represents fire is given as = + + ? ( + + ) + ( 3.4 ) Based on the metric DC a binary image PFM is generated for each frame, such that where ?C is a assurance threshold degree and the values 1 or 0 indicate the presence of absence of fire at the matching location in the image f. The threshold ?C is the same for all pixel locations.3.2 Randomness of Area SizeFor the estimated fire pel country, because of the fire flickering, a alteration in the country size of the PFM occurs from frame to frame.Non-fire countries have a less random alteration in the country size. The normalized country alteration ?Ai for the ith frame is given by where Ai corresponds to the country of the fire blobs stand foring the possible fire parts in the PFM. In instance a difficult determination regulation is used, fire is assumed if ?Ai & A ; gt ; ?A, where ?A is a determination threshold.3.3 Surface CoarsenessWe use the discrepancy of the blobs as a characteristic to assist extinguishing non-fire blobs in the PFM. Therefore, fire is assumed if the blob has a discrepancy ? & A ; gt ; , where is determined from a set of experimental analyses.3.4 LopsidednessThe lopsidedness measures the grade of dissymmetry of a distribution around its mean. It is zero when the distribution is symmetric, positive if the distribution form is more dispersed to the right and negative if it is more dispersed to the left, as illustrated in Fig. 3.3. Fig. 3.3. Illustration of the consequence of positive and negative lopsidedness on a distribution. Fire parts have high pel values for the green and specially for the ruddy channel. Very frequently, we observe a impregnation in the ruddy channel, taking the histogram to the upper side of the scope. This causes the lopsidedness of this distribution to hold a high negative value. For this ground, we employ the lopsidedness as an utile characteristic to place fire parts. Let the sample lopsidedness of the ruddy channel be defined as where J is the figure of pels in the blob. A possible fire part nowadays at frame I is assumed as existent fire if where is a determination threshold.3.5 Boundary RoughnessFire does non hold a specific boundary feature on its ain. Therefore, we propose the usage the boundary raggedness of the possible fire part as a characteristic, given by the ratio between margin and convex hull margin. The bulging hull of a set of pels S is the smallest convex set incorporating S. The boundary raggedness is given by where is the margin of S and is the margin of the bulging hull of S. To calculate the margin, a simple attack is to number the figure of pels connected horizontally and vertically plus v2 times the figure of pels connected diagonally.A difficult determination regulation is used, fire is assumed if & amp ; gt ; , where is a determination threshold.Chapter 4EXPERIMENTAL RESULTSIn the experiments, different sorts of fires pictures such as edifice, wild land and residential fire, incorporating shootings captured at twenty-four hours clip, twilight or dark clip were taken. This diverseness is convenient to measure the public presentation of the system under different lighting and quality conditions. ( B ) ( degree Celsius ) ( vitamin D ) ( vitamin E ) Fig 4.1 ( a ) Input picture frame, ( B ) Histogram of R, G and B sets, ( degree Celsius ) Potential Fire Mask ( PFM ) , ( vitamin D ) morphologically closed PFM, and ( vitamin E ) the concluding PFM. Table 4.1 Table demoing some illustrations of the country alteration, surface saltiness and lopsidedness in the back-to-back frames. Frame Number Area ( Number of pels ) Area Change Surface Coarseness Lopsidedness 1 11159 No alteration Detected Negative 2 11159 Detected Negative 99 17623 Change Detected Negative 100 17717 Detected Negative 207 19058 Change Detected Negative 208 19203 Detected NegativeCONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKIn this paper, we have proposed a new sensing metric based on colour for fire sensing in picture. In add-on, we have exploited of import ocular characteristics of fire, like country size, surface saltiness, lopsidedness and boundary raggedness of the fire pel distribution. The lopsidedness, in peculiar, is a really utile form because of the frequent happening of impregnation in the ruddy channel of fire parts. In contrast to other methods which extract complicated characteristics, the characteristics discussed here allow really fast processing, doing the system applicable for existent clip fire sensing. As the portion of minor undertaking, all the characteristics for fire sensing have been extracted. Now, these characteristics need to be fed into a classifier to sort the given picture frame as incorporating fire or no fire. A Bayes classifier can be employed for this intent.